THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF 
RELIGIOUS   SECTS 

A  Comparison  of  Types 


BY 

Henry  C.  McComas,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor •,  Preceptor  in  Psychology ',  in  Princeton  University 


Author  of 
"SOME  TYPES  OF  ATTENTION'* 


NEW  YORK        CHICAGO        TORONTO 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company 

LONDON       AND       EDINBURGH 


Copyright,  1912,  by 
FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 


New  York:  158  Fifth  Avenue 
Chicago:  125  N.  Wabash  Ave. 

/Toronto;  2£4Rtehmond  St.,  W. 

'•London*:  21  Paternoster  Square 
lOo/.Princes  Street 


tto 

MY   FATHER  AND  MOTHER 

WHOSE   DEVOTION    MADE   THIS 
LITTLE  VOLUME  POSSIBLE 


273396 


PREFACE 

THIS  little  volume  is  an  outgrowth  of  two  very  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  experience, — a  number  of  years  in 
church  work  and  a  number  of  years  in  a  psychological 
laboratory.  The  church  work  covered  very  dissimilar 
fields :  slums  on  the  east  side  of  New  York,  a  fashion- 
able church  on  the  west  side,  home-mission  churches, 
churches  north,  south  and  west.  In  this  religious  work 
practical  success  depended  upon  the  ability  to  interpret 
human  nature.  A  working  basis  for  classifying  differ- 
ent religious  types  grew  up  unconsciously.  Some  people 
must  be  reached  in  one  way,  some  in  another.  A  suc- 
cessful worker  bases  his  efforts  upon  a  successful  classi- 
fication of  religious  types. 

A  few  years  in  the  psychological  laboratory  brought 
out  a  supplementary  truth.  No  two  persons  are  exactly 
alike  in  their  intellectual  and  emotional  natures.  The 
laboratory  has  many  ways  of  measuring  individual  dif- 
ferences. One  of  the  most  fruitful  branches  of  Psy- 
chology to-day  is  the  study  of  Individual  Differences. 
These  are  found  in  Attention,  Association,  Memory, 
Imagination,  and,  indeed,  in  every  factor  entering  into 
human  nature.  The  grouping  of  these  differences  into 
types  has  not  yet  been  accomplished  but  promises  to  be 
one  of  the  achievements  of  the  future. 

The  connection  between  religious  types  and  these 
fundamental  differences  in  human  nature  is  so  obvious 
that  no  one  can  come  into  contact  with  both  sets  of  facts 


8  PREFACE 

without  becoming  convinced  that  they  are  bound  up  to- 
gether. That  is,  the  differences  which  appear  in  the 
religious  life  of  different  denominations  have  their  only 
justification  in  the  differences  of  human  dispositions  and 
not  in  any  divine  preferences.  Nothing  is  more  neces- 
sary to-day  than  the  proclamation  of  this  fact,  for  the 
heart  of  sectarianism  is  the  belief  that  each  sect  is 
peculiarly  a  divine  favorite.  When  all  religious  people 
freely  acknowledge  that  their  differences  are  matters  of 
individual  tastes  and  temperaments  the  real  barriers 
to  church  unity  will  be  brushed  away. 

H.  C.  Me. 


CONTENTS 


I.  INDIVIDUALITY      .         .         .         .         .         .1.3 

Rembrandt's  Genius  in  Portraits  Based  on  Individ- 
uality of  Countenances  —  Greater  Individuality  in 
Brains — Evolution  of  the  Nervous  System — Its  Re- 
sponse  to  the  Demands  of  Its  Surroundings  —  Social 
Environments  Modify  Human  Nature  —  Effects  of 
Events  in  Childhood  upon  Later  Ideas  and  Feelings 
—  Individual  Differences  in  Psychological  Labora- 
tories —  Differences  in  Attention  and  Imagination  — 
Necessary  Individuality  in  Religious  Thoughts  and 
Feelings. 

II.  TYPES .     23   _ 

Types  of  Faces  —  Galton's  Photographs  —  Physical 
Types  of  Human  Nature  in  Sex,  Race,  Nation  — 
Le  Bon  on  the  French  Type  —  Gehring's  Contrast  of 
Race  Types  in  Music,  Literature  and  Art — Differences 
Due  to  Span  of  Attention  —  Types  Resulting  from 
Physical  and  Social  Causes  —  Some  Familiar  Types  — 
Social  Laws  and  Types  —  Religion  in  the  Individual 
and  Type. 

III.  RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION      .         .         .     33 

Types  of  Religion  Not  Due  to  God  — Pratt's  Classes 
of  Religious  People  —  Their  Reasons  for  Belief —Some 
Philosophers'  Religious  Types —  Definitions  of  Re- 
ligion —  Theories  of  Origin  of  Religion  —  They  Do 
Not  Establish  a  Unity  —  Practical  Gauge  of  the  Pres- 
ence of  Religion  —  The  One  Factor  in  Common  in 
All  Religions  —  Unity  and  Diversity  in  Christian 
Faiths. 

IV.  THE  SECTS 47 

Popular    Idea    of    Church     Growth    Combated    by  \r 
Census  —  Great  Membership,  Wealth    and  Activity 
of  the  Sects  —  Cause  of  Weakness  in   Divisions  — 


io  CONTENTS 

Evils  of  Sectarian  Divisions  —  Two  Instances  of 
Over- Churching  —  Results  of  Sectional  Spirit  and 
Activity  —  Rights  of  the  Public  —  Causes  of  Genuine 
Sects  —  A  List  of  the  Sects. 


V.  THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS  .     61 

The  United  States  a  Fertile  Soil  for  Sects—  Immi- 
/  gration  —  Old  World  Differences  —  National  and  Ra- 
cial Differences  —  The  Civil  War  Sects  —  Sects  Aris-~ 
ing  from  Church  Administration  —  Influential  Lead- 
ers —  Sects  Arising  from  Protests  —  The  Spirit  of 
Conservatism  —  The  Pioneer  Spirit  —  Revival  Sects  — 
Doctrinal  Sects  —  Differences  Due  to  Natural  Reli- 
gious Types. 

VI.  CLASSES  OF  SECTS       .....     76 

A  Classification  of  Sects  Based  on  Their  Origins  and 

y  Characteristics  —  How  National  Stocks  Affect  Reli- 
gious^ History  —  People  of  Northern  Europe  —  Lu- 
theran Bodies  and  Other  Bodies  of  a  Like  Type  —  The 
Negro  Churches  —  Revivals  Produce  a  Certain  Type 
of  Sect  —  The  Doctrinal  Group  of  Sects  —  Ritualism 
Appeals  to  Certain  Types  —  Leaders  of  Sects  Gather 
Followers  of  Their  Own  Type. 

VII.  NATURAL  SECTS         .         .         .         .         .89 

Natural  Lines  of  Sect  Cleavage  —  The  Calvinist 
Type  —  The  Typical  Methodist—  -The  Baptist  —  The 
Unitarian  —  Professor  Giddings'  Types  of  Mind  and 
Classes  of  Sects  —  Comparison  of  Classifications  Shows 
Two  Centres  of  Types  —  Many  Influences  Obscure 
Natural  Types  —  Unitarian  and  Christian  Science 
Types  Contrasted  —  Corroborations  of  Types  Seen 
in  Church  Expenses  and  Their  Locations. 

VIII.  TYPES  OF  HUMAN  NATURE  .         .   105 

Ancient  Explanations  of  Types  of  Human  Nature  — 
The  Four  Temperaments  —  Possible  Physical  Causes 
of  Temperament  —  Pyschology  and  Classes  of  Human 
Nature  —  Malapert's  Orders  of  Nature  —  Giddings' 
Classes  —  TThrgg^N^nt^i  niVigirmc  —  These 
Characterize  Periods  in  the 


_-_ 

and  of  the  __  Race  ~  The   Impulsive,    the   Emotional 
and  the  Intellectual  . 


CONTENTS 

_  IX.    ACTION  TYPES 

Central  Place  of  Emotions  in  the  Religious  Life— 
Action  Types  —  Instinct  and  Action  —  Imitation  — 
The  Average  Man  of  the  Action  Type— Appeal  Made 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  This  Type  — The 
Intellectual  Action  Type— His  Place  in  the  Church 
Anomalous— The  Impulsive  Type— The  Well-wisher 
—Types  Scattered  Through  All  Sects. 

I     X.    EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES          .         .         .         .134 

The  Meaning  of  Experiential  Defined  —  Emotions 
Enter  into  Experience  —  The  Worth  of  Life  in  Terms 
of  Emotion —  A  Classification  of  the  Feelings  —  The 
Feelings  Depend  upon  Physical  Organs— Sex  and 
the  Emotional  Nature  —  Biology  and  Sex  Characters 

—  Temperamental  Differences  in  Sexes  — Sex  Differ- 
ences in  Religion  —  In  Boys  and   Girls — In  Adults 

—  Sex     Preferences    in     Sects  —  Suggestibility    of 
Women  —Emotion  and  Suggestibility  —  Suggestibil- 
ity in   Hypnosis   and    Conversions  —  A    Conversion 
Type  —  The  Unstable  Emotional  Nature  of  Primitive 
People  —  Professor  James  on   Emotion   and   Inhibi- 
tion—  Emotion  Spells  Youth  — Types  of  Emotional 
Nature  —  Optimist  and  Pessimist  —  Relation  of  Feel- 
ing and  Thinking"—  The  Origin  of  Dogmatism  —  The 
Difficulty    in    Unlearning    Religious    Teaching    of 
Youth  — The  Virtue  of  the  Bigot. 

XL    INTELLECTUAL  TYPES       .        .         .         .166 

Obvious  Intellectual  Disparities  — The  Attention  — 
Its  Relation  to  Church  Services — Quick  and  Slow 
Thinkers  —  Their  Range  of  Thought— Ideational 
Types  —  The  Visualizer's  Imagination  —  The  Audi- 
tory and  Motor  Types  —  Theology  Is  an  Expression 
of  Religious  Thought  —  It  Must  Underlie  Religion 
Itself  —  The  Direction  of  Religious  Thought  Is 
Guided  by  Types  of  Mind  — The  Liberal  and  the 
Literalist  —  Their  Religious  Lives  —  Imagery  and 
Ritual. 

XII.    THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT          .   186 

The  Three  Great  Types  —  A  Characterization  of  the 
Sects  According  to  Type  — The  Adventists  —  The 
Baptists — The  Christians — Coloured  Denominations — 
The  Christian  Science  Church  — The  Congregation- 


12  CONTENTS 

alists  —  The  Disciples  of  Christ  and  the  Churches  of 
Christ  —  The  Dunkers  —  The  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion —  The  Friends  —  Latter-day  Saints—  Lutherans 

—  Methodists  —  Presbyterians  —  The  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  —  Unitarians  —  United  Brethren  — 
Universalists  —  Tabular  Comparison  of  Denomina- 
tional Types. 

XIII.  LEVELLING   FORCES        .         .         .         .203 

Forces  Which  Level  Down  —  Inequalities  in  Society 
and  in  the  Church  —  The  Public  School  —  Social 
Pressure  —  Fashions  —  Density  of  Population  and  the 
Spread  of  Ideas  —  Education  Makes  Leaders  of  One 
Type  —  The  Mood  of  the  Times  —  Modern  Scholar- 
ship Makes  Agreement  on  Bible  Doctrines  Practi- 
cable —  Humanitarian  Sentiments  Make  Unity  of 
Viewpoints  —  Spirit  of  the  Times  in  Church  Build- 
ings, Rituals  and  Sermons  —  The  Reflex  Influence 
of  Missions  —  The  Y.  P.  S.  C.  E.  —  The  Sunday 
School  and  Other  Church  Agencies  —  Opposition  to 
Closer  Approach  *of  Churches  Due  to  Their  Officers 

—  The  Greatest  Levelling  Force  Is  Public  Opinion  — 
Public   Opinion    Fosters    Certain    Movements    and 
Opposes  Others  —  The  Kind  of  Public  Opinion  Which 
Fosters    Divorce   Fosters    Christian    Science  —  The 
Need  of  Cultivating  Public  Opinion  for  the  Spread  of 
the  Idea  of  Church  Unity. 

XIV.  POSSIBILITIES  AND  IMPOSSIBILITIES 

IN  CHURCH  UNION    .....   217 

A  Church  of  Thirty  Millions  —  Unity  and  Federation  — 

' 


Reunion  of  Sects  Made  by  Civil  War  —  rinagr  'Rfi^- 
tions  Between,  ftegt.s  nf  Different  Nflt1'otin1itit>R  —  Ra- 
ctaTISects  and  Missions  —  A  Catholic  and  Protestant 
Federation  —  Doctrinal  Differences  Not  Insuper- 
able —  Church  Polity  Not  an  Impassable  Barrier  —  A 
Comparison  of  the  Natural  Sects  —  Groups  of  Sects 
Closely  Related  by  Natural  Traits  —  First  Steps 
Toward  Unity. 

XV.    IN  CONCLUSION  ......  233 

To  Correct  Some  Natural  Misunderstandings  —  The 
Real  Purpose  of  the  Book. 


INDIVIDUALITY 

WHEN  we  study  the  genius  of  Rembrandt  in  those 
wonderful  portraits,  which  look  into  our  eyes 
with  the  sorrows  and  yearning,  the  wisdom 
and  wonder  of  lives  whose  roles  were  played  in  the 
dawn  of  a  new  age,  the  conviction  grows  that  the  secret 
of  the  master  lay  in  his  discernment  and  portrayal  of 
Individuality.  We  feel  that  we  are  in  the  presence  of 
personality,  not  paint.  This  feeling  is  accentuated  if 
portraits  hanging  near  the  master's  are  in  the  monotonous 
uniform  style  of  so  many  portrait  painters.  How  accept- 
able are  the  lack  of  symmetry,  the  presence  of  unflat- 
tering moles,  warts,  hairs  and  wrinkles  in  those  old  faces 
by  Rembrandt !  Though  we  have  never  seen  the  originals 
there  is  a  feeling  that  these  copies  are  telling  the  truth 
about  the  originals,  and  to  alter  the  lines  would  be  to 
misrepresent  them. 

Nor  would  it  require  much  alteration  to  completely 
change  their  character.  The  turn  of  a  line  at  the  corner 
of  a  mouth,  the  darkening  of  a  shadow  under  the  eye 
would  make  as  great  a  change  in  expression  as  the 
alteration  of  a  letter  makes  in  the  meaning  of  a  word. 
Such  slight  changes  as  these  make  the  face  of  each  man 
unlike  that  of  his  fellow. 

A  sculptor  accidentally  injured  the  tip  of  the  nose  on 
one  of  the  busts  of  Shakespere.  The  shortening  of  the 

13 


14  THE  SECTS 

nose  demanded  a  lengthening  of  the  upper  lip;  with  the 
disastrous  result  that  the  immortal  bard  assumed  an  ir- 
resistible Irish  smile. 

When  the  numerous  features  composing  a  counte- 
nance are  considered,  it  is  no  wonder  that  trifling  changes 
produce  an  infinity  of  variety  in  countenances.  If  a 
chart  in  craniometry  is  studied  carefully,  it  will  become 
very  evident  that  the  length  of  lines  and  size  of  angles 
which  go  into  the  making  of  human  heads  are  so  numer- 
ous and  so  capable  of  variation  that  Nature  has  ample 
means  for  producing  original  countenances  and  has  no 
need  to  duplicate. 

These  external  and  obvious  materials  are  comparatively 
scanty  when  the  internal  factors  are  taken  into  account. 
Every  brain,  like  every  face,  has  its  individuality ;  which 
has  its  source  in  a  maze  of  brain-tracts.  It  would  be 
far  easier  for  two  trees  in  a  forest  to  be  exactly  alike 
in  trunks,  limbs,  boughs,  branches,  twigs  and  leaves 
than  it  would  be  for  two  brains  to  have  the  same  brain- 
tracts,  the  same  connections  between  sensory  and  motor 
cells,  the  same  synapses.  While  large  and  general  simi- 
larities everywhere  appear,  the  infinity  of  microscopic 
differences  between  two  brains  is  incomprehensibly 
great. 

In  connection  with  these  physiological  differences  be- 
tween the  brains  of  individuals,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
the  way  in  which  the  brain  evolved  in  the  course  of 
ages.  In  every  age  it  was  a  case  of  "  demand  and  sup- 
ply." An  organism  needed  the  means  for  adapting  itself 
to  the  requirements  of  its  surroundings;  and  from  its 
innate  potentialities  and  the  conditions  of  its  environ- 
ment it  developed  the  required  structure.  This  process 
may  be  traced  from  the  simple  jelly-like,  unicellular 


INDIVIDUALITY  15 

animal  life  among  the  Protozoa  to  man.  When  life  de- 
pended upon  the  formation  of  contractile  tissues,  and, 
then  upon  nervous  tissues,  to  coordinate  the  movements 
of  the  contractile  tissues,  in  these  simple  organisms  the 
necessary  structures  appeared.  Or,  it  should  be  said, 
more  accurately,  that  the  structures  and  functions  ap- 
peared in  many  cases;  and  in  these  cases  the  species 
survived.  Of  course,  there  have  been  many  forms  of 
life  which  have  disappeared  because  they  could  not  meet 
the  demands  made  upon  them. 

Each  of  the  end-organs,  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  taste 
and  smell  bulbs  of  the  nerves  ending  in  the  tongue  and 
in  the  air  passages  of  the  nose,  the  variously  shaped 
nerve  endings  in  the  skin,  giving  sensations  of  touch, 
pain  and  temperature,  all  grew  up  as  animal  life  needed 
to  receive  information  concerning  the  universe  in  which 
it  was  trying  to  live.  Some  senses  developed  earlier  in 
the  life  of  one  species  than  in  the  life  of  another.  Along 
with  this  growth  of  the  end-organs  and  nervous  system 
went  a  corresponding  growth  of  the  "  centres  "  of  the 
nervous  activities,  the  brain.  In  early  forms  of  life  the 
sense-organs  for  hearing,  seeing,  tasting  and  smelling 
appear  at  the  oral  end  of  the  animal.  They  are  situated 
near  the  mouth,  as  it  is  always  the  end  seeking  food 
and  pointed  in  the  direction  in  which  the  creature  is  mov- 
ing. This  position  of  the  principal  sense-organs  naturally 
brought  the  nervous  centres,  which  received  the  sensory 
impressions  and  which  coordinated  them,  into  the  same 
part  of  the  organism.  So  the  brain  developed  in  response 
to  the  demands  of  the  environment.  This  enables  us  to 
see  why  the  various  animal  orders  have  such  dissimilar 
brains  and  it  hints  at  a  reason  why  the  human  brain 
should  vary  so  greatly. 


16  THE  SECTS 

Environment  does  not  cease  its  influence  upon  brain 
and  nervous  system  even  in  man.  Here,  too,  the 
subtle  hand  of  the  creature's  universe  reaches  in  and 
shapes  his  being.  No  such  obvious  characteristics  are 
evident  in  the  difference  between  the  brain  of  an  Aus- 
tralian Bushman  and  an  English  scientist  as  between 
a  bird  and  a  fish;  but  the  Bushman's  brain  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  Englishman's;  and  his  environment  plus 
that  of  his  ancestors  has  made  the  difference.  We 
may  look  for  many  of  the  minute  differences  between 
our  fellows  in  the  influence  of  their  several  environ- 
ments. 

This  is  more  obvious  in  physical  environments  than 
in  social.  For  many  years  sociologists  have  pointed  out 
how  the  characteristics  of  the  mountaineer,  the  plains- 
man, the  sailor,  the  farmer  and  the  merchant  differ.  In 
our  own  experience  we  have  noticed  the  effect  upon  our 
lives  of  a  sudden  change  of  surroundings.  Thus,  an  un- 
accustomed altitude  quickens  the  heart,  an  unusually 
warm,  moist  atmosphere  enervates  us,  climatic  and 
dietary  changes  affect  the  entire  physical  system.  But 
such  factors  are  by  no  means  a  civilized  man's  entire 
environment.  Indeed,  they  are  the  things  of  which  he 
is  least  aware.  His  environment  consists  far  more  in 
those  things  which  engage  his  thoughts  and  demand  his 
constant  activity.  His  daily  occupation  stamps  itself 
upon  his  life.  If  he  leans  over  a  ledger  all  day,  he 
breathes  less  than  a  quarter  of  the  fresh  air  he  would 
consume  if  he  were  a  mason  or  a  sailor.  His  thoughts, 
like  the  muscles  of  his  eyes,  become  accustomed  to 
focussing  on  one  class  of  things  to  the  exclusion  of 
others.  He  develops  his  own  especial  sort  of  mental 
focus.  Body  and  brain  become  bent  to  the  prevailing 


INDIVIDUALITY  17 

needs.  As  no  two  life-experiences  are  exactly  alike,  no 
two  human  beings  can  be  exactly  alike.  True,  similar 
environments  would  tend  to  produce  likenesses  in  human 
nature,  and  do  so;  but  slight  differences  in  the  original 
disposition  respond  to  similar  surroundings  in  such  a 
way  that  twins  who  have  a  very  great  deal  in  common 
physically,  frequently  show  the  most  marked  differences. 
In  their  case  the  environment  which  has  surrounded 
them  from  infancy  up  to  maturity  must  be  reckoned 
with. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  thought-life  of  the  child  is 
the  keystone  which  gives  shape  to  adult  thinking.  The 
first  impressions  of  the  sea,  of  mountains,  prairies,  great 
rivers,  or  any  of  the  wonders  of  nature,  are  the  im- 
pressions which  form  centres  for  all  succeeding  thoughts 
upon  these  things.  When  the  word  "  spring "  or 
"  pond  "  is  mentioned,  I  think  at  first  of  the  meaning  of 
the  word  as  it  occurs  in  its  context ;  then,  if  a  clearer  and 
larger  comprehension  is  needed,  I  find  a  visual  image  of 
a  certain  "  pond "  or  "  spring,"  connected  with  my 
earliest  experiences,  will  come  into  mind.  This  is  a 
very  common  experience.  Some  recent  research  in 
psychology  tends  to  strengthen  the  belief  that  the  earli- 
est impressions  upon  the  mind  run  down  into  the  thought- 
life  of  all  later  years.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  a  vivid  ex- 
perience will  start  a  series  of  thought-complexes  forming 
in  the  child-mind  which  will  be  his  and  his  only  for  all 
time.  A  rather  striking  case  is  that  of  the  man  who  had 
an  aversion  for  horses.  He  felt  that  the  bite  of  a  horse 
was  especially  dangerous,  and  rather  feared  a  horse's 
head  than  his  heels.  He  spoke  of  his  persistent  aver- 
sion to  an  uncle,  who  had  known  him  in  infancy,  and 
learned  that  he  had  been  bitten  by  a  horse  when  he  was 


i8  THE  SECTS 

a  very  small  boy  and  had  always  dreaded  them.  The 
recollection  of  the  event  had  long  since  faded  out,  but  the 
effects  still  remained.  With  many  children,  apparently 
commonplace  experiences  make  lasting  impressions. 
Henry  Ward  Beecher  declared  that  he  never  could  en- 
dure seeing  anyone  box  a  child's  ears,  as  it  recalled  a  cer- 
tain experience  in  his  own  mischievous  period.  Lincoln's 
repertory  of  stories  was  filled  with  scores  of  homely  and 
quaint  incidents  which  lasted  in  his  mind  throughout 
life.  Everyone  is  aware  that  this  treasury  of  early 
impressions  exists.  Not  everyone  realizes  that  many 
of  his  likes  and  dislikes,  and  much  of  the  colouring  of 
his  thoughts,  come  from  this  source. 

So  it  may  easily  be  seen  how  the  home,  the  school,  the 
play-ground,  the  work  of  each  child  give  a  touch  to 
his  personality.  Each  touch  means  a  slight  difference 
in  the  building  of  his  thought-life;  or,  if  we  retain  the 
physiologist's  viewpoint,  to  the  fashioning  of  his  brain. 
Each  experience  of  the  years  of  plasticity  enters  into 
the  fibre  of  his  mental  and  temperamental  being.  It 
would  not  mean  the  obliteration  of  individuality  if  every 
human  being  on  earth  started  with  exactly  the  same 
native  endowments,  for  so  diverse  are  the  experiences 
which  enter  into  the  separate  lives  of  those  living  in 
apparently  the  same  environment,  both  social  and  phys- 
ical, that  each  would  acquire  characteristics  of  his 
own. 

Of  course,  no  such  identity  of  natural  faculties  exists. 
Nature  is  anything  but  stereotyped.  "  We  see  infinite 
variability  in  the  endless  slight  peculiarities  which  dis- 
tinguish the  individuals  of  the  same  species,  and  which 
cannot  be  accounted  for  by  inheritance  from  either 
parent  or  from  some  more  remote  ancestor.  Even 


INDIVIDUALITY  19 

strongly  marked  differences  occasionally  appear  in  the 
young  of  the  same  litter  and  in  seedlings  from  the  same 
seed-capsules."  *  With  the  higher  and  more  complex 
creatures  there  is  greater  opportunity  for  these  native 
differences. 

One  of  the  most  important  methods  of  studying  these 
differences  is  afforded  by  the  Psychological  Laboratory. 
Since  Wilhelm  Wundt  established  his  laboratory  in  Leip- 
zig in  1875,  his  methods  and  ideals  have  spread  to 
nearly  every  university  in  the  world,  with  the  splendid  re- 
sult that  a  new  body  of  scientific  knowledge  has  grown 
up  in  a  generation.  From  the  material  accumulated  in 
these  many  laboratories,  an  intelligent  investigation  of 
the  great  principles  of  the  human  mind  is  possible.  Not 
the  least  important  part  of  this  "  New  Psychology " 
is  that  which  examines  "  Individual  Differences."  Some 
one  characteristic  of  several  persons  is  studied  in  detail 
and  careful  comparisons  are  made.  Thus,  by  means  of 
the  chronoscope,  an  instrument  which  measures  time  in 
terms  of  a  thousandth  of  a  second,  an  experimenter  can 
easily  determine  how  long  it  takes  a  certain  subject  to 
perceive  a  light  or  a  sound  and  to  react  upon  his  per- 
ception. Or  he  may  measure  the  length  of  time  it  re- 
quires to  discriminate  between  two  colours  or  sounds. 
This  would  give  a  hint  as  to  the  quickness  of  the  sub- 
ject's mental  activity.  In  these  simplest  of  experiments 
very  wide  individual  differences  appear.  Some  persons 
are  longer  in  recognizing  an  object  than  others.  Some 
are  very  much  quicker  in  their  decisions  and  actions  than 
others.  To  correlate  a  large  number  of  such  peculiarities 
is  one  of  the  great  tasks  of  the  psychologist. 

Enough  experiments  have  been  made  to  show  many 

*  Darwin:   "The  Origin  of  Species,"  p.  8. 


20  THE  SECTS 

striking  differences  among  men.  For  example,  the 
length  of  time  during  which  one  may  keep  his  mind 
upon  a  subject  varies  greatly  from  man  to  man.  Not 
only  does  the  time  in  which  the  attention  dwells  upon  a 
subject  vary,  but  the  extent  of  grasp  of  the  attention 
itself  is  very  variable.  One  individual  actually  receives 
more  or  less  into  his  mind  during  a  given  time  than  does 
another.  The  same  landscape  passing  a  car  window  be- 
fore two  travellers,  will  not  be  perceived  in  the  same  pro- 
portions. Each  man  builds  his  mind  with  the  materials 
which  the  grasp  of  his  attention  allows.  More  than  that, 
when  the  materials  which  have  actually  entered  the  mind 
are  recalled,  each  one  uses  his  own  method  of  re-collect- 
ing. Each  finds  his  emotions  Entering  into  his  thoughts 
in  a  unique  way.  When  several  students  were  requested 
to  tell  how  they  recalled  a  certain  event,  each  gave  a  dif- 
ferent scheme  of  recall  and  each  had  his  own  feelings 
attending  his  thought.  One  recalled  the  event  entirely 
in  terms  of  emotion,  another  in  visual  terms,  a  third  in 
visual  and  auditory,  a  fourth  found  motor  elements  in  his 
recollection.  Nothing,  therefore,  is  truer  than  the  Latin 
maxim  "  as  many  minds  as  men." 

When  the  higher  faculties  of  the  mind  are  engaged,  as 
in  imagination  and  conception,  the  most  vivid  distinctions 
of  thought  appear.  I  have  asked  a  number  of  men  and 
women  of  education  to  solve  a  simple  puzzle  in  me- 
chanics. Each  one  pursued  a  strikingly  original  method 
of  attack.  That  these  people  lived  different  mental  lives 
despite  the  identity  of  university  training  goes  without 
saying.  Nor  is  it  different  with  all  men  and  women. 
Any  simple  test  will  show  these  differences.  Elaborate 
matters  of  imagination  show  vast  dissimilarities.  Thus 
no  two  persons  have  the  same  thought  concerning  the 


INDIVIDUALITY  21 

world.  To  one  the  world  calls  up  a  map,  to  another  a 
globe,  a  third  thinks  of  foreign  lands,  and  so  the  variety 
continues.  It  is  only  when  each  stops  and  recalls  the 
salient  facts  known  about  the  world,  according  to  as- 
tronomy and  geology,  that  anything  like  uniformity  of 
conceptions  appears. 

What,  then,  could  be  more  obvious  than  that  each 
human  being  fashions  his  own  religious  conceptions? 
The  idea  of  God  finds  its  material  in  the  early  teach- 
ing or  thinking  of  each  soul.  Around  the  central  thought 
gathers  a  host  of  impressions.  In  the  "  association 
test "  I  have  occasionally  given  the  word  "  God/'  The 
first  thoughts  which  came  to  the  subjects  were  "  church 
steeple,"  "  the  soul/'  "  mother/'  and  such  dissimilar 
things.  The  central  conception  of  God  is,  of  course,  very 
vague ;  and  around  this  the  innumerable  associations  clus- 
ter, giving  their  colour  to  the  great  idea.  Only  theologians 
who  have  reduced  God  to  logical  and  verbal  formulas 
show  any  uniformity  of  conception,  and  their  colourless 
abstractions  diff er,  unless  they  deliberately  mould  them  in 
the  same  historical  matrices.  Among  the  people  who  are 
not  professional  experts  in  defining  their  conception  of 
God,  but  whose  lives  are  permeated  with  the  inspiration 
of  their  thought  of  Him,  there  is  a  glorious  profusion 
of  differences.  Indeed,  where  the  figure  of  Christ  is 
conceived  as  the  great  image  of  God,  the  innumerable 
likenesses  of  Him  afford  almost  as  large  a  field  for  choice 
of  conceptions.  Perhaps  the  thought  which  endeavours 
to  make  clear  to  the  mind  what  is  meant  by  God  is  no 
more  individual  with  each  person  than  the  emotion  which 
joins  such  thought.  Here  again  the  life-experience  of 
each  mortal  weaves  itself  into  his  religious  feelings. 
Love,  fear,  awe,  even  curiosity,  mingle  with  a  number  of 


22  THE  SECTS 

indefinable  emotions  in  the  complex  psychic  state  which 
entertains  the  thought  of  God. 

Nothing  could  be  more  futile  than  to  seek  to  pattern 
all  thoughts  of  God,  the  Soul,  and  Duty,  after  one  per- 
son's conception.  Each  must  fashion  his  own  thought 
of  these  truths,  and  each  must  respond  in  his  own  way 
to  his  own  God.  This  does  not  mean  that  there  are 
many  gods,  any  more  than  there  are  many  worlds  in 
which  we  live.  But  it  does  mean  that  there  can  be  no 
censor,  no  Pope  or  church  which  can  make  our  thought 
of  God  in  whom  we  live. 


II 

TYPES 

THOUGH  no  two  faces  are  exactly  alike,  every- 
one instinctively  groups  faces  into  classes.  An 
ability  to  do  this  is  a  valuable  asset  to  a  man  of 
affairs;  for  in  many  cases  the  face  value  of  a  person 
is  the  only  value  obtainable  when  a  decision  is  pending. 
Then  the  practised  eye  discerns  the  alert  and  the 
phlegmatic,  the  vigorous  and  the  incompetent  with  a 
remarkable  precision.  As  experience  in  "  character 
reading"  increases,  assurance  grows.  For,  in  spite  of 
many  errors,  so  many  estimates  are  correct  that  nearly 
everyone  directs  his  attitude  towards  strangers  accord- 
ing to  the  impressions  they  make.  Nor  is  this  a  hap- 
hazard method.  Underlying  the  diversities  of  expres- 
sions there  are  general  traits  which  are  fairly  constant. 
Thirty  years  ago  Francis  Galton  endeavoured  to  put 
these  vague  and  popular  beliefs  into  systematic  form  by 
making  composite  photographs  of  different  classes  of 
people.  He  took  several  criminals,  several  persons  suf- 
fering from  consumption,  and  other  cases  of  physical 
or  mental  likeness,  and  superimposed  their  pictures.  As 
a  result,  the  features  in  common  stand  out  with  consider- 
able distinctness.  Enough  similarity  is  evident  to  show 
why  one  instinctively  declares  "  that  is  a  criminal  face," 
or  "  that  person  has  tuberculosis."  Recently,  over  a 
score  of  photographs  of  New  York  bank  presidents  were 

23 


24  THE  SECTS 

thrown  into  a  composite  picture.  Of  course  one  could 
not  say,  "  Here  is  a  typical  bank  president,"  when  look- 
ing at  the  picture.  Nevertheless,  the  intelligence,  char- 
acter and  culture  of  a  successful  man  were  all  in  clear 
evidence.  No  one  could  mistake  the  lines  of  that  counte- 
nance for  a  pugilist's,  or  a  tramp's,  or  a  debauchee's. 
Within  certain  limits,  anyone  could  indicate  the  social 
and  intellectual  status  of  the  man. 

As  we  saw  in  the  preceding  chapter,  there  is  a  certain 
correlation  between  the  external  form  and  the  internal 
factors  of  personality.  So,  here,  we  may  look  for  types 
of  human  nature  as  well  as  types  of  countenance.  Only 
as  such  classes  appear,  can  an  intelligent  study  proceed. 
For  it  is  the  first  duty  of  any  research  to  classify.  The 
success  in  classification  measures  the  grasp  of  the  sub- 
ject. When  Linnaeus  arranged  his  plants  in  the  order  of 
their  structural  similarities,  he  revolutionized  botany; 
but  not  until  the  principles  of  evolution  were  under- 
stood, did  a  complete  and  accurate  classification  become 
possible.  It  is  not  enough  to  point  out  superficial  re- 
semblances and  to  group  them  as  "  Types."  Some  un- 
derstanding of  the  forces  which  enter  into  the  making  of 
types  is  necessary.  For  this  reason,  several  chapters  will 
be  devoted  to  the  study  of  a  number  of  elements  which 
go  into  the  forming  of  the  great  classes  of  human  beings. 

Obviously,  the  wide  physical  disparity  among  people 
will  be  instrumental  in  shaping  human  nature  in  such  a 
way  that  one  classification  will  follow  those  lines.  Such 
characteristic  differences  as  those  of  sex  cannot  help 
dividing  the  human  race  into  two  great  types.  Some  of 
these  characteristic  features  will  be  discussed  in  later 
chapters.  Suffice  it,  here,  to  call  attention  to  the  evi- 
dent physical  disparity  of  sex;  the  skeletal,  muscular, 


TYPES  25 

organic  and  functional  dissimilarities.  So  great  are 
these  that  some  writers  declare  the  two  sexes  can  never 
thoroughly  understand  each  other.  They  point  out  how 
somatic  sensations,  which  furnish  a  background  of  af- 
fective colouring  to  all  thinking,  are  so  unlike  that  the 
two  types  of  mind  never  hold  the  same  conceptions  in  the 
same  setting.  Less  obvious  are  the  physical  types  in 
races.  Ethnologists  show  types  in  shape  and  capacity  of 
skull,  in  height  and  strength  of  skeleton,  colour  of  hair 
and  eyes.  Philologists  show  types  of  language  which 
give  some  insight  into  the  typical  workings  of  the  mind. 
Sociologists  point  out  traits  of  racial  natures  arising 
from  conditions  of  climate,  topography  and  occupation. 
Historians  find  unclassifiable  particular  events,  which 
also  mould  the  spiritual  life  of  races.  Each  angle  of 
inquiry  shows  a  feature  delineating  a  type.  Not  all  dis- 
similarities are  clear  enough  to  draw  clear-cut  distinc- 
tions, but  that  is  also  true  in  any  classification.  Enough 
are  clear  and  distinct  to  indicate  racial  types,  though 
the  older,  classical  groupings  may  be  untenable. 

National  types  have  less  apparent  lines  of  cleavage. 
Here  the  changes  and  chances  of  history  tend  to  obliter- 
ate old  societies  and  create  new.  Local  communities, 
clans  or  tribes,  are  ever  assimilating  new  elements  or 
separating  into  new  groups.  The  constituencies  of  a 
nation  are,  also,  in  a  state  of  flux.  Nevertheless  there 
are  biological  and  physiological  influences  which  tend  to 
make  national  types.  M.  Le  Bon  declares  "  the  mental 
constitution  of  a  race  is  due  to  very  simple  physiological 
reasons.  Each  individual  is  the  product  not  merely  of 
his  immediate  parents  but  also  of  his  race,  that  is,  of 
the  entire  series  of  his  ascendants.  A  learned  econo- 
mist, M.  Cheysson,  has  calculated  that  in  France,  sup- 


26  THE  SECTS 

posing  there  to  be  three  generations  in  a  century,  each 
of  us  would  have  in  his  veins  the  blood  of  at  least  twenty 
millions  of  the  people  living  in  the  year  1000  A.D.  In 
consequence  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  given  locality,  of  a 
given  district,  necessarily  possess  common  ancestors,  are 
moulded  of  the  same  clay,  bear  the  same  impress,  and 
they  are  all  brought  back  unceasingly  to  the  average 
type  by  this  long  and  heavy  chain  of  which  they  are 
merely  the  last  links.  We  are  the  children  at  once  of 
our  parents  and  of  our  race.  .  .  .  The  formation  of  the 
mental  constitution  of  a  people  does  not  demand,  as 
the  creation  of  animal  species,  those  geological  periods 
whose  immense  duration  defies  calculation.  Still  the 
time  it  demands  is  considerable.  To  create  such  a  peo- 
ple as  the  French,  even  to  the  comparatively  slight  ex- 
tent accomplished  as  yet,  the  community  of  sentiments 
and  thought  that  forms  its  soul,  more  than  ten  centuries 
have  been  necessary."  * 

In  Mr.  Gehring's  fascinating  essays  upon  "  Racial 
Contrasts/'  some  very  noteworthy  characteristics  of  the 
Germanic  and  Latin  peoples  are  given.  These  appear 
very  neatly  in  the  musical  compositions  of  the  two.  A 
distinguishing  trait  of  Teutonic  compositions  is  their 
liberal  use  of  counterpoint.  "  Counterpoint  was  devel- 
oped among  the  Netherlanders,  a  nation  partly  Germanic 
and  partly  Celtic  in  their  derivation.  Two  of  the  great 
names  which  mark  the  evolution  of  this  method  of  com- 
position, O'Keghern  and  Willaert,  are  Germanic.  Trans- 
planted to  Italy,  counterpoint  bloomed  forth  in  full 
splendor  in  the  works  of  Palestrina;  but  its  barbaric 
complexity  soon  led  to  a  reaction  among  that  people  of 
classic  tastes,  which  resulted  in  the  invention  of  the 

*  Le  Bon :  "  The  Psychology  of  Peoples,"  pp.  8,  12. 


TYPES  27 

simpler  monadic  or  harmonic  style.  Ever  since  that 
time,  counterpoint  has  found  a  more  congenial  home 
among  the  masters  of  Germanic  extraction.  Bach  was 
the  greatest  of  all  contrapuntists.  Handel,  Mozart, 
Beethoven,  Wagner  and  Brahms  were  all  masters  of 
polyphony ;  the  Romanic  races,  on  the  contrary,  have  de- 
voted themselves  preferentially  to  forms  of  composition 
which  did  not  admit  of  florid  contrapuntal  treatment. 
.  .  .  The  essence  of  counterpoint  is  complexity.  A  sin- 
gle melody  is  clear  and  simple  in  nature;  so  is  a  melody 
with  harmonic  accompaniment.  Although  the  harmonic 
basis  comprises  several  tones,  these  are  as  a  rule  not  per- 
ceived separately,  but  are  incorporated  with  the  melody, 
clinging  to  it  indissolubly,  like  colour  to  a  material  object. 
In  counterpoint,  however,  we  have  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent voices  running  along  side  by  side  with  or  with- 
out harmonic  accompaniment.  The  mind  is  in  a  divided 
state  and  fluctuates  from  part  to  part  in  the  endeavour 
to  hold  all  the  elements  together."  This  extensive  di- 
versity of  elements  which  calls  for  a  large  grasp  of 
thought  is  an  indication  of  what  psychologists  call  a 
broad  "  span  of  attention  "  in  those  who  take  pleasure 
in  this  class  of  music.  For  the  attention  must  needs 
take  hold  of  many  things  at  once.  If  it  cannot  do  this, 
and  occupies  itself  with  first  one  feature  of  the  music 
and  then  another,  all  the  symmetry  and  balance  dis- 
appear from  the  composition  and  the  mind  receives 
the  impression  of  a  jumble  of  unrelated  passages;  which, 
of  course,  is  displeasing  to  any  musical  taste. 

Similar  principles  are  to  be  found  in  literature.  The 
Germanic  abounds  in  figurative  expressions  which  open 
out  vistas  to  the  imagination,  they  are  so  full  of  sugges- 
tions. Germanic  style  is  prolific  with  detail.  The  drama 


28  THE  SECTS 

swarms  with  a  multitude  of  persons,  scenes,  interests; 
witness  Goethe's  "  Faust."  Latin  people  prefer  clearness. 
"  Germanic  sentences  with  their  extreme  length,  em- 
ployment of  auxiliary  words,  suspension  of  sense  and 
crowding  of  intermediate  parts  with  modifying  adjec- 
tives, participles  and  dependent  clauses,"  require  a  broad- 
spanned  attention  to  keep  all  the  factors  of  the  thought 
present  to  the  mind.  Not  only  is  a  broad  grasp  of  the 
attention  needed,  but  a  certain  agility  of  mind;  for  the 
intelligibility  of  each  sentence  depends  upon  the  ability 
to  recall  quickly  and  accurately  the  significance  of  each 
word.  This  seems  to  be  a  characteristic  of  the  Teutonic 
mind. 

In  German  art,  too,  there  was  the  peculiar  crowding 
of  compositions,  and  the  multiplied  and  angular  folds  of 
the  drapery,  while  not  elegant,  tended  to  increase  the 
points  of  attention.  Italian  artists  stripped  their  pic- 
tures of  accessions.  Many  of  the  most  famous  among 
them,  as  a  rule,  introduced  but  a  limited  number  of 
figures.  Giotto,  Bellini,  Raphael  and  Titian  are  ex- 
amples. Michael  Angelo  criticised  the  Northern  custom 
of  painting  "  landscapes,"  with  "  many  figures  scattered 
here  and  there."  Rubens,  on  the  other  hand,  delighted 
in  a  bewildering  profusion  of  elements.  "  The  figures 
in  northern  art,  as  a  rule,  embody  more  individuality; 
they  are  more  heterogeneous,  while  those  in  the  South 
tend  to  homogeneity.  There  is  much  sameness  in  the 
faces  and  poses  of  the  southern  paintings.  As  a  result, 
the  mind  is  not  engaged  in  so  many  directions ;  a  group 
of  people  can  often  be  perceived  as  a  single  object, — a 
mere  group;  the  battalions  of  Meissonier,  for  example, 
'  sing '  in  unison ;  in  the  North,  on  the  contrary,  the  con- 
stituent figures  demand  more  attention." 


TYPES  29 

Mr.  Gehring's  study  shows  how  a  few  salient  mental 
and  temperamental  traits,  identified  with  a  people,  will 
shine  out  in  their  works.  Everyone  recognizes  the  pro- 
fundity of  Germanic  thought  and  the  lucidity  of  Latin 
expression;  but  not  many  recognize  the  deep-seated 
psychological  facts  which  give  rise  to  these  often 
noticed  characteristics.  Here,  however,  the  trail-marks 
appear  so  clear  that  one  may  easily  trace  the  influence 
of  a  mental  endowment  which  differentiates  two  great 
European  peoples.  For  the  common  characteristics,  in  the 
several  means  which  are  considered,  of  expressing  the 
mental  life  can  be  due  to  but  one  class  of  ability;  namely, 
that  of  attention.  By  which  is  meant  the  ability  to  hold 
in  the  "  clearness  area  "  of  consciousness  a  number  of 
impressions  at  a  given  time.  Thus,  one  man  catches  the 
entire  display  in  a  shop  window  with  a  glance  where 
another  sees  only  a  few  details.  A  difference  in  span 
of  attention  accounts  for  this  simple  experience.  On  a 
larger  scale,  the  same  thing  applies  to  the  faculty  of 
grasping  an  involved  passage  in  music,  an  intricate  sen- 
tence in  reading,  a  large  grouping  of  forms,  or  colours, 
in  statuary,  or  painting.  Much  more  will  be  said  on  this 
head  in  another  place,  but  it  must  be  added  here  that 
attention  is  the  "  clearest  area"  of  consciousness,  some- 
thing as  the  circle  of  light  about  a  torch  gradually  dims 
into  complete  darkness.  In  the  semi-light  of  attention 
many  things  are  dimly  apprehended.  Vague  impressions 
of  the  glass  on  the  shop  window,  the  colour  of  the  sill, 
the  curtain  in  the  background,  may  stay  in  this  "  fringe  " 
of  the  attention.  When  the  attention  is  of  the  narrow- 
spanned  type  there  will  be  little  in  this  field.  All  that  is 
clearly  seen  or  heard  will  apparently  be  all  that  exists 
at  the  time.  So  a  musical  theme,  or  a  problem  in  phi- 


30  THE  SECTS 

losophy,  will  have  many  or  few  tributary  impressions  as 
the  mind  apprehends  through  a  broad-spanned  attention 
with  a  wide  margin,  or  fringe,  or  through  a  narrow- 
spanned  attention  with  no  surrounding  and  faint  per- 
ceptions. Needless  to  say,  the  religious  outlook  upon 
the  universe  will  be  very  different  in  these  two  types 
of  mind. 

Another  great  cause  of  typical  resemblances  is  in  the 
family.  The  same  heredity  and  home  influence  produce 
many  noticeable  resemblances  among  individuals.  From 
generation  to  generation  the  same  germ  plasm  carries 
the  possibility  of  similar  development.  Mendel  provec 
for  the  vegetal  world  that  a  proportion  of  the  traits  o] 
either  parent  were  handed  down  unalloyed  to  their  de- 
scendants, and,  in  some  measure,  the  principle  appears 
among  human  beings.  Darwin  and  Galton  showed  man) 
instances  of  very  important  resemblances  between  par- 
ent and  progeny.  However,  such  resemblances  are  frorr 
groups  too  small  to  be  of  any  considerable  influence 
upon  the  social  order,  and  do  not  materially  affect  the 
religious  type. 

Beyond  these  Types,  which  are  assigned  to  those 
agencies  which  form  races  and  families,  are  many  Type* 
whose  character  is  determined  by  less  easily  recognized 
causes.  For  example,  there  is  a  criminal  type,  which  i< 
the  result  of  psychological  weakness  plus  sociologica 
injustice;  there  is  an  artistic  type,  which  springs  froir 
a  high  development  of  certain  faculties  and  a  cooperative 
appreciation  from  society.  Then  there  are  the  Tramp 
the  Scholar,  the  Inventor,  the  Adventurer,  the  Mechanic 
and  a  host  of  others.  All  owe  their  kind  to  a  combina- 
tion of  social  and  physiological  causes.  The  psycholog- 
ical causes  are,  in  a  measure,  identical  with  those  whicl: 


TYPES  31 

enter  into  the  making  of  genus  and  species  the  world 
over.  The  social  causes  are  of  a  very  subtile  but  equally 
effective  kind.  M.  Tarde  has  explained  at  great  length 
that  human  conduct  follows  the  laws  of  Imitation  in 
the  same  way  that  the  animal  kingdom  repeats  its 
species  according  to  the  laws  of  heredity,  or  as  the  vibra- 
tion in  physics  reproduces  itself  in  succeeding  vibrations. 
Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  philosophy  of  this  theory, 
it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  a  great  number  of  our  ac- 
tivities, our  pleasures  and  our  beliefs  are  the  result  of 
imitation.  Professor  Giddings  finds  the  cause  of  group- 
ing among  all  conscious  creatures  in  the  "  consciousness 
of  kind."  Birds  of  a  feather,  and  men  of  like  tastes, 
flock  together.  Here  is  a  clear  and  forceful  reason  for 
the  formation  and  maintenance  of  typical  groups  of  men. 
Everyone  appreciates  the  influence  of  the  same  sort  of 
occupation  to  produce  fraternity  of  feeling  and  unity 
of  outlook.  The  same  kinds  of  traditions  which  give 
direction  to  ideas  and  purposes  are  potent  in  creating 
types  of  mind.  Many  other  great  influences,  (which 
call  for  the  same  reactions  among  a  large  number  of 
people,  such  as  laws,  customs,  morals),  have  a  great 
formative  effect  upon  human  nature  and  leave  their 
unmistakable  imprint.  If  the  results  of  these  influences 
are  compared,  it  will  become  evident  that  the  forces  of 
nature  and  society  are  constantly  gathering  the  innumer- 
able individualities  of  humanity  into  characteristic 
Types. 

In  general,  there  are  two  great  classes  of  influences 
acting  to  produce  types  of  men.  One  is  physical,  the 
other  is  social.  The  former  gives  an  inherent  disposition 
toward  the  same  sort  of  thinking,  feeling  and  acting 
among  people  sharing  the  same  heritage.  It  is  not  by 


32  THE  SECTS 

chance,  then,  that  women  respond  to  the  appeal  of  re- 
ligion in  the  Christian  churches  and  Buddhist  temples 
more  than  men;  nor  is  it  strange  that  the  people  of  the 
north  of  Europe,  whose  art,  literature  and  philosophy 
show  such  a  contrast  with  their  Southern  neighbours, 
should  become  Protestant  so  much  more  easily.  The  lat- 
ter, the  social  influences,  give  customs,  morals  and  habits 
to  the  groups  of  people  upon  whom  they  act.  These 
result  in  typical  traits  which  are  often  easily  recognized. 
The  people,  for  example,  in  the  conservative  sections  of 
the  country  where  the  influences  of  a  former  generation 
still  live,  still  think  and  feel  upon  political  and  religious 
matters  in  a  characteristic  way. 

We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  each  mind  has  its 
own  life  which,  in  detail,  is  unlike  any  other,  but  which, 
in  its  general  cast,  may  be  classed  with  many  others. 
Nature  and  society  conspire  to  create  original  individ- 
uals, and  both  physical  nature  and  the  social  order  con- 
spire to  give  these  individualities  characteristic  uni- 
formities. These  different  natures  show  their  individu- 
ality in  the  conception  of  religious  truth,  and  where 
genuine  types  of  religious  nature  are  found,  there  appear 
types  of  religious  experience  and  beliefs. 


Ill 

RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION 

FROM  the  preceding  chapters  we  are  prepared  to 
find  a  variety  of  religions  passing  under  the  one 
name,  Religion.  Each  individual  works  out  his 
own  salvation.  It  is  his,  and  his  alone,  though  he  shares 
its  elements  with  a  host  of  his  fellows.  As  a  bed  of 
flowers  draws  its  life  from  one  blazing  star,  millions  of 
miles  distant,  each  plant  receiving  the  same  light,  but 
each  sending  out  its  leaves  to  receive  the  light  in  its  own 
way;  so,  in  the  hosts  of  human  lives,  each  grows  in  its 
own  way  under  the  one  Light.  There  is  no  need  in  this 
inquiry  to  study  that  Light,  "  which  lighteth  every  man 
that  cometh  into  the  world,"  any  more  than  the  botanist, 
seeking  to  find  the  cause  of  the  differences  in  the  growth 
of  his  plants,  needs  to  study  the  sun.  If  the  warmth  of 
sunshine  is  constant,  shining  upon  each  equally,  it  can- 
not be  the  cause  of  differences.  These  must  be  due  to 
diverse  and  varying  causes  which  act  unequally  upon 
plant  or  human  nature.  The  present  study  is  in  psy- 
chology, not  in  theology.  Our  interest  is  in  types  of 
religious  life  and  the  factors  which  cause  these  types. 
If  the  Infinite  Being  is  Father  of  all  men,  and  makes  His 
sun  to  shine  on  the  just  and  the  unjust,  then  the  differ- 
ences in  religious  life  have  a  human  origin,  and  are  to 
be  studied  by  psychology.  If  there  is  no  God  and  the 
religious  life  is  spontaneously  engendered,  then,  obvi- 

33 


34  THE  SECTS 

ously,  it  is  to  be  studied  by  psychology.  Whether  the 
theist  or  the  atheist  is  right,  religious  differences  find 
their  origin  in  human  nature! 

Individuality  and  types  of  human  nature  give  birth 
to  individual  differences  and  types  in  the  religious  life. 
Professor  James  B.  Pratt  *  has  sought  to  find  the  bases 
of  religious  belief  by  having  a  number  of  people  describe 
their  religious  life  in  response  to  a  questionnaire.  This 
questionnaire  contains  the  following  questions :  First, 
what  does  religion  mean  to  you  personally?  That  is, 
is  it  a  belief  that  something  exists?  Is  it  an  emotional 
experience,  is  it  an  attitude  of  the  will  toward  God 
or  toward  righteousness,  or  is  it  something  else?  Sec- 
ond, what  do  you  mean  by  God?  Third,  why  do  you 
believe  in  God?  Fourth,  do  you  not  so  much  believe 
in  God  as  to  want  to  use  Him?  Fifth,  is  God  very  real 
to  you;  as  real  as  an  earthly  friend,  though  different? 
Sixth,  do  you  pray,  and  if  so,  why?  Seventh,  what  do 
you  mean  by  spirituality?  Eighth,  do  you  believe  in 
personal  immortality?  Ninth,  do  you  accept  the  Bible 
as  authority  in  religious  matters?  Tenth,  what  do  you 
mean  by  a  religious  experience?  These  questions  were 
answered  by  two  classes  of  people:  the  one  was  what 
Professor  Pratt  called  "typical  church  people,"  the 
other  he  describes  as  a  "  somewhat  motley  collection  of 
intellectual  people."  In  all  there  were  sixty-eight  re- 
plies. Among  these  sixty-eight  people  we  find  great 
differences  in  the  religious  life.  Perhaps  individuality 
shows  in  no  other  one  department  of  life  quite  so  clearly 
as  it  does  in  the  religious  experience.  Professor  Pratt 
finds  these  many  diverse  religious  principles  falling  into 
five  classes.  The  first  class  contains  those  whose  reli- 

*  Amer.  Jour,  of  Relig.  Psychol.,  2,  pp.  76-96. 


RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION  35 

giousJife.  builds  up.  upon  -intellectual  factprs.  That  is, 
the  reason  furnishes  the  basis  of  religion.  Such  people 
can  give  a  reason  for  the  faith  that  is  in  them.  They 
can  supply  you  arguments  why  they  believe  as  they 
do  and  why  they  live  as  they  do.  Said  one,  "  I  believe 
in  God  as  an  intellectual  and  moral  necessity.  Any  feel- 
ings which  I  may  have  in  the  matter  grow  out  of  the 
perception  of  the  realities  which  cause  these  necessities 
— God  is  a  reality  to  me  as  a  rational  being/'  Said 
another,  "  I  believe  in  God  because  I  cannot  conceive  of 
a  world  like  ours  except  as  made  and  controlled  by  a 
person." 

The  second  class  comprises  those  who  believe  in  God 
because  they  have  been  so  instructed  and  their  instruc- 
tion has  been  urged  upon  them  by  those  whom  they  con- 
sider authoritative.  In  such  a  class  would  fall  the  great 
majority  of  those  who  find  the  Church  .the  keystone  of 
their  faith  and  those  who  find  the  Bible  the  corner- 
stone of  their  belief.  As  one  Roman  Catholic  remarked, 
"  If  I  want  to  know  about  God  I  go  to  the  Church  as 
represented  by  some  priest,  for  the  Church  is  the  author- 
ity in  religious  matters,  just  as  the  physician  and  teacher 
are  in  their  sphere."  Of  course,  there  are  multitudes  of 
Protestants  who  would  answer  as  one  respondent  did, 
"  I  believe  in  God  from  authority,  as  contained  in  the 
Bible  in  passages  declaring  themselves  as  God,  as,  '  I  am 
God  and  there  is  none  else;  I  am  God  and  there  is  none 
like  Me/  There  are  many  other  assurances  that  might 
be  quoted." 

There  are  not  so  many  church  people  who  hold  to  the 
Bible's  authority  as  is  often  supposed.  Of  the  forty- 
four  answers  from  church  people,  thirty  accepted  and 
fourteen  rejected  the  Book's  authority,  twenty-two  say- 


36  THE  SECTS 

ing  that  their  religious  faith  and  religious  life  were  based 
on  it.  That  is,  exactly  half  of  the  typical  religious  people 
who  answered  the  questions  feel  that  their  belief  and 
their  religion  are  dependent  on  the  old  way  of  viewing 
the  Bible,  the  other  half  feeling  independent  for  their 
religious  life  from  its  authority  or  rejecting  it  (in  the 
old  sense)  altogether. 

The  third  class  is  made  up  of  those  who  are  religious 
because  they  have  started  in  the  religious  life  and  have 
continued  in  its  momentum,  finding  it  easier  to  continue 
than  to  desert.  This  sounds  cynical,  but  it  is  not.  For 
our  lives  are  made  up  of  many  tendencies  which  have 
become  woven  together,  and  to  which  we  adhere  un- 
reasonably. Here  is  a  typical  answer.  "  Entirely  a 
matter  of  training.  I  was  brought  up  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church — took  pride  in  being  an  Atheist  all  through 
my  college  course — though  always  attended  church  and 
Sunday-school/'  Another  curious  answer  is,  "  My 
religion  is  a  bundle  of  inconsistencies  which  I  have  long 
ago  quit  trying  to  reconcile." 

The  fourth  class  contains  those  whose  belief  grows 
out  of  need.  They  believe  in  God  and  live  in  the 
strength  of  that  belief  because  they  find  life  is  bettered 
and  brightened  by  such  a  course.  Said  one,  "  Because  I 
personally,  subjectively  want  to  believe  in  Him.  I  pray 
because  I  like  to.  I  believe  in  immortality  because  I 
like  to."  Said  another,  after  several  years  of  scepticism 
and  argument  he  came  back  "to  the  plain  solid  ideas 
which  were  drilled  into  us  in  childhood.  Then  comes 
a  peace  of  mind  regarding  our  religious  status."  It  is 
from  this  class  that  the  Christian  church  has  always 
found  a  champion  to  defend  the  old,  the  established, 
and  sometimes  the  absurd. 


RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION  37 

The  fifth  class  is  characterized  by  that  most  prevalent 
factor  in  religion,  feeling.  Dr.  Pratt  found  that  thirty- 
six  out  of  his  sixty-eight  respondents  belong  in  this 
class  and  fourteen  of  the  remaining  claimed,  also,  to 
have  had  some  mystical  experience.  That  is,  fifty  peo- 
ple out  of  sixty-eight  firmly  believed  that  they  had  been 
in  immediate  communion  with  God.  This  belief  was 
based  upon  experience.  The  following  are  typical  re- 
sponses. "  His  presence  I  find  in  the  deeps  of  Nature 
and  of  human  nature.  I  never  feel  so  devotional  as 
when  in  a  great  wood  where  I  cannot  see  out,  on  the 
sea,  on  the  seashore,  or  out  at  night  under  the  stars." 
"  In  one  sense  He  is  real ;  when  I  see  the  sunlight  shining 
through  the  leaves  or  the  forest  trees  and  lighting  up 
the  ferns  and  flowers  unseen  by  anyone  else  save  myself, 
I  have  felt  a  nearness  of  God  that  I  have  never  felt 
under  the  influence  of  any  sermon."  "  God  as  my 
Father  is  very  real.  Have  I  experienced  His  presence? 
Yes,  and  more  than  once."  "  I  do  feel  that  I  have 
experienced  His  presence  very  distinctly  many  times." 
"  I  came  to  Him  a  dying  drunkard  and  He  gave  me  re- 
pentance. I  cried  to  Him  and  He  saved  me  instantly.  I 
have  never  wanted  a  drink,  nor  sworn  an  oath,  nor 
stolen  a  cent  since." 

We  cannot  draw  very  many  deductions  from  the  ex- 
periences of  sixty-eight  people;  but  one  deduction  we 
surely  can  draw  and  that  is,  there  are  wide  diversities  in 
the  religious  lives  of  different  people.  The  question 
suggests  itself, — are  these  answers  accurately  descriptive 
of  their  author's  religion?  Every  psychologist  knows 
how  difficult  it  is  to  "  introspect."  Indeed,  it  requires 
an  exceptional  talent  to  look  into  one's  life  and  describe 
one's  thoughts  or  feelings  accurately.  It  is  a  very  nice 


38  THE  SECTS 

question  whether  such  a  performance  can  be  accom- 
plished at  all  or  not.  Certainly  a  miscellaneous  group 
of  people  could  not  give  us  very  definite  descriptions  of 
the  most  subtle  experiences.  Their  answers  are  val- 
uable. They  are  studies  from  real  life.  They  are  snap- 
shots of  portions  of  actual  life.  They  certainly  make 
clear  the  diversity  in  religion  due  to  individuality  and 
the  rough  resemblances  between  them  are  strongly  in- 
dicative of  types. 

Let  us  supplement  these  statements  by  a  study  of  the 
careful  statements  of  specialists  in  the  field  of  religious 
thought.  Professor  JL^ba  has  gathered  a  number  of 
definitions  of  religionTwHich  come  from  the  facile  pens 
of  several  of  our  religious  philosophers.*  Here,  too,  we 
find  a  most  bewildering  diversity  of  opinions  in  which 
it  is  hard  to  find  two  definitions  alike.  Professor  Leuba 
groups  them :  "  On  examining  the  definitions  of  re- 
ligion, one  finds  that  a  psychological  classification  in 
three  groups  makes  room  for  them  all.  Several  other 
classifications  are  possible.  We  give  the  preference  to 
the  following  because  it  brings  into  relief  better  than 
any  other  the  faulty  psychology  which  enters  for  so 
large  a  share  in  this  lamentable  confusion  of  ideas  about 
religion.  In  the  first,  a  specific  intellectual  element  is 
given,  as  the  essence  or  as  the  distinguishing  mark  of 
religion.  In  the  second,  it  is  one  of  several  objective 
feelings  singled  out  as  the  religious  differentia;  while 
in  the  third  group,  the  active  principle,  the  cravings,  the 
desires,  the  impulses,  the  will,  take  the  place  occupied  by 
the  intellect  or  the  feelings  in  the  other  classes.  Re- 
ligion becomes,  in  this  view,  an  endeavour  to  realize  a 
certain  type  of  being,  an  instinct,  a  certain  kind  of 

*  Monist,  ii,  pp.  195-225. 


RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION  39 

actions,  etc."  In  the  first  group  of  definitions,  in  which 
the  intellectual  element  dominates,  we  have  Martineau, 
who  defines  religion  as,  "  A  belief  in  an  ever-living  God, 
that  is,  in  a  divine  mind  and  will  ruling  the  universe,  and 
holding  moral  relations  with  mankind."  Romanes' 
definition  is,  "  Religion  is  a  department  of  thought  hav- 
ing for  its  objects  superconsciousness  and  intelligent 
being."  D'Alviella  thought  that "  The  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  superhuman  beings,  who  interfere  in  a  mysteri- 
ous fashion  in  the  destiny  of  man,  constitutes  religion." 

The  second  group  of  definitions  contains  those  actu- 
ated by  feeling.  Schleiermacher  declared,  "  Religion  can- 
not and  will  not  originate  in  the  pure  impulse  to  know. 
It  is  neither  thinking  nor  acting,  but  intuition  and  feel- 
ing." Herbart  wrote,  "  Sympathy  with  the  universal 
dependence  of  men  is  the  essential  natural  principle  of 
all  religion."  Daniel  G.  Thompson  thought,  "  Religion 
is  the  aggregate  of  those  sentiments  in  the  human  mind 
arising  in  connection  with  the  relations  assumed  to  sub- 
sist between  the  order  of  nature  and  a  postulated  super- 
natural." 

In  the  third  group  we  find  the  following  definitions. 
Bradley  declared,  "  Religion  is  the  attempt  to  express 
the  complete  reality  of  goodness  through  every  aspect 
of  our  being."    Another  definition  is  that  of  Feuerbach, 
"The  origin,  nay,  the  essence  of  religion  is  «desire;  if  a 
man  possess  no  needs,  no  desires,  he  would  possess  no 
good."     Marshall  said,  "  The  restraint  of  individualistic! 
impulses  to  rational  ones  (the  suppression  of  our  will/ 
to  a  higher  will)  seems  to  me  to  be  of  the  very  essence! 
of  religion;  the  belief  in  the  Deity,  as  usually  found,  isJ 
from  the  psychological  point  of  view,  an  attachment  toi 
rather  than  the  essence  of,  the  religious  feeling." 


40  THE  SECTS 

It  would  appear  from  these  groups  of  definitions,  that 
the  trained  thinker  finds  as  great  a  difficulty  in  agreeing 
with  his  neighbour's  religious  conceptions  as  does  the 
average  man.  Perhaps  the  only  difference  is  that  the 
religious  philosopher  endeavours  to  universalize  what 
he  finds  in  his  own  religious  experience.  He  judges 
others  by  himself.  While  the  man  on  the  street  would 
simply  look  within  and  try  to  state  what  his  own  per- 
sonal religious  life  is.  There  is  this  agreement  between 
them  both,  the  philosopher  and  the  average  man  may 
be  classed  in  one  of  three  groups.  He  will  find  his 
group  in  accordance  with  the  dominance  of  some  one 
element  in  his  religious  nature ;  whether  it  be  reason,  or 
emotion,  or  the  disposition  for  action. 

Some  very  interesting  efforts  have  been  made  to  find 
a  unity  in  all  religions  by  tracing  back  their  history  to- 
ward their  origins.  This  is  a  thoroughly  orthodox 
scientific  proceeding.  It  is  the  comparative  method.  It 
has  yielded  magnificent  results.  Time  was,  not  so  many 
years  ago,  when  the  diversity  of  languages  was  a  be- 
wildering puzzle.  Comparative  philology  succeeded  in 
tracing  back  the  numerous  dialects  to  their  paternal 
languages  and  these  parental  languages  back  to  one  re- 
mote tongue;  in  the  case  of  the  Aryan  languages.  The 
Semitic  languages  seem  to  have  a  family  tree  of  their 
own.  In  comparative  anatomy  and  embryology,  the  re- 
lationship of  the  whole  animal  kingdom  promises  to  be 
disclosed.  From  these  striking  precedents  we  are  surely 
authorized  to  hope  for  great  results  when  the  compara- 
tive method  seeks,  in  the  evolution  of  religions,  the 
remote  parental  religion.  At  present,  however,  the 
theories  concerning  the  origin  of  religion  are  not  very 
convincing.  A  generation  ago  Herbert  Spencer  sought 


RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION  41 

to  convince  the  thinking  world  that  religion  took  its 
origin  amid  the  superstitions  of  primitive  man.  When 
the  primitive  man  heard  a  voice  resound  from  a  moun- 
tain-side in  response  to  his  own  cry,  he  knew  nothing  of 
the  echo  and  so  interpreted  the  reply  as  from  an  unseen 
speaker.  When  he  dreamt  at  night,  he  thought  the 
visions  he  saw  were  as  real  as  the  objects  he  beheld  in 
the  daylight.  The  face  which  looked  up  into  his  from 
the  smooth  waters  of  the  spring  was  no  human  face ;  but 
it,  too,  could  only  be  explained  as  the  echo,  and  as  the 
vision  of  the  dead  in  his  dream,  by  an  appeal  to  the 
supernatural.  If  we  grant  that  the  superstitions  of 
primitive  man  originated  in  this  way,  which  seems  prob- 
able, we  are  still  a  very  long  distance  from  explaining 
the  religious  nature  of  man.  For  these  interpretations 
would  not  be  wrought  into  the  fibre  of  human  nature. 
Their  influence  would  disappear  as  science  appeared. 
Among  highly  educated  families  to-day,  where  these 
superstitions  play  no  part  in  their  religious  develop- 
ment, there  is  a  heart-hunger  which  seeks  satisfaction. 
In  many  cases,  such  a  satisfaction  is  found  quite  inde- 
pendently of  that  body  of  ideas  which  relate  to  the 
phenomena  Mr.  Spencer  described.  A  much  more  seri- 
ous effort  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  religious  nature 
has  been  undertaken  by  McDougall.*  His  endeavour  is 
to  trace  out  the  beginnings  of  the  emotions  rather  than 
the  ideas  which  underlie  religion.  He  believes  that  the 
emotions  which  play  a  principal  part  in  the  religious 
life  are  admiration,  awe  and  reverence.  He  seeks  to 
show  how  these  emotions  originated  in  our  ancestors. 
The  primitive  man  lacked  almost  completely  the  con- 

*Wm.  McDougall:  "An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology," 
Chapter  XIII. 


42  THE  SECTS 

ception  of  mechanical  causation.  When  bodies  fell  to 
the  ground,  when  the  wind  blew,  when  the  sun  rose, 
when  the  lightning  flashed  and  the  thunder  crashed, 
when  the  rain  fell  and  extinguished  the  fire,  all  these 
phenomena  had  to  be  explained  in  some  way.  The  one 
kind  of  causation  with  which  he  was  familiar  was  his 
own  voluntary  action  issuing  from  feeling,  emotion  and 
desire.  So  this  naturally  became  the  type  upon  which 
he  modelled  his  theories  of  causation.  The  pestilence, 
famine,  storm,  disease  and  flood  which  worked  such 
dreadful  havoc  must  surely  be  caused  by  some  sinister 
being.  Naturally,  he  stood  in  awe  of  such  a  being  or 
beings.  "  As  soon  as  these  powers  began  to  be  con- 
ceived by  man  as  personal  powers,  they  must  have 
evoked  in  him  the  attitude  and  impulse  of  subjection  and 
the  emotion  of  negative  self-feeling,  which  are  rooted  in 
the  instinct  of  subjection.  ...  He  not  only  feared 
and  wondered  at  these  powers  but  humbled  himself  be- 
fore them,  and  sought  to  gain  and  to  obey  the  slight- 
est indication  of  their  wills."  This  attitude  gave  rise  to 
customs  which  sought  to  placate  the  unseen  powers. 
As  time  passed,  these  customs  would  take  on  an  ever- 
increasing  strong  hold  upon  man,  they  would  have 
the  sanctity  and  authority  of  antiquity,  and  they  would 
be  perpetuated  as  the  people's  most  priceless  heritage. 
As  men  rose  to  higher  stages  of  culture,  the  fearsome 
aspects  of  their  faith  would  give  place  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  Nature,  and  into  their  religion  tenderer  emo- 
tions would  find  their  way."  This  change  in  the  nature 
of  the  religious  emotions  among  those  peoples  that  have 
survived  and  progressed  was  a  natural  consequence  of 
their  success  in  the  struggle  of  groups  for  survival. 
For  the  surviving  communities  are  those  whose  gods 


RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION  43 

have,  in  the  main,  not  only  spared  them,  not  only  ab- 
stained from  bringing  plague  and  famine  and  military 
disaster  upon  them  in  too  severe  measures,  but  have 
actually  supported  them  and  helped  them  to  overcome 
their  enemies."  In  some  such  way  as  this,  gratitude 
would  enter  into  the  religious  emotion.  Later,  as  social 
life  became  more  complex,  and  ideas  of  justice  arose, 
the  community  would  elevate  its  god,  and  imputing 
higher  attributes  to  it,  the  religious  life  would  corre- 
spondingly rise.  The  criticism  of  this  theory  which 
instantly  occurs  to  mind  is  this :  it  takes  emotions  already 
developed  and  groups  them  into  an  instinct.  These  emo- 
tions may  become  part  of  one's  being  and  become  trans- 
mitted to  posterity,  but  a  combination  of  such  emo- 
tions could  hardly  be  transmitted.  Furthermore,  when 
we  look  into  the  origin  of  the  religious  life  in  the  indi- 
vidual, we  do  not  always  find  the  emotions  McDougall 
mentions.  I  think  of  a  case,  with  which  I  am  very 
familiar,  in  which  the  religious  life  took  its  inception  in 
a  passionate  love  of  the  Divine  Being.  I  cannot  find 
that  fear  of  any  sort  played  any  part  in  the  upspringing 
of  a  religion  which  practically  made  a  new  character 
in  this  young  man.  Then,  too,  if  we  can  rely  upon  the 
"  theory  of  recapitulation/'  to  understand  the  early  life- 
history  of  the  race,  there  must  have  been  something  in 
the  race-history  to  correspond  with  the  adolescent  period. 
McDougalFs  theories  might  well  be  ascribed  to  a  sort 
of  pre-adolescent  race-history.  The  storm  and  stress  of 
the  formative  period  of  the  race,  in  which  our  modern 
religious  life  probably  had  its  origin,  is  not  described  in 
the  experience  of  primitive  man. 

Perhaps  it  should  be  said  in  passing  that  the  theories 
advanced  to  explain  the  appearance  of  religion  among 


44  THE  SECTS 

men  havg  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  validity  of 
religion  itself.  In  the  minds  of  many  people,  any  ex- 
planation of  the  forces  which  might  have  operated  in  the 
past  of  the  race  to  induce  religious  thinking  and  feeling 
is  more  than  an  explanation.  It  is  a  destructive  calamity. 
Surely  this  is  absurd.  One  might  as  well  claim  that 
there  could  be  no  philosophy,  no  understanding  of  the 
universe  because  the  brain  of  man  may  be  traced,  back 
to  the  ganglia  of  the  protozoa.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
we  know  so  little  about  the  relation  of  brain  to  mind, 
it  is  most  ridiculous  to  set  limits  to  philosophic  truths 
in  terms  of  nerve-history.  There  may  well  be  com- 
munion between  the  finite  spirit  and  the  Infinite  Spirit 
brought  about  in  some  of  the  astonishing  processes  in 
the  evolution  of  man.  When  we  recall  that  we  draw  our 
breath  by  means  of  an  organ  which  in  the  remote  past 
served  as  an  air  bladder  for  water  animals,  it  is  not 
incredible  that  the  means  by  which  we  have  our  spiritual 
life  should  have  served  in  the  remote  past  some  other 
and  very  different  purpose. 

Whether  religion  has  its  spirit  from  natural  and  social 
forces,  or  comes  from  Spirit  to  spirit,  it  matters  not. 
It  is  the  supreme  value  in  human  life.  Its  value  is  not 
to  be  found  in  the  Past,  but  in  its  worth  at  this  hour. 
We  are  not  antiquarians.  We  are  living  souls! 

The  question  in  hand  is  briefly  this,  shall  we  speak  of 
Religions  or  of  Religion?  Despite  the  diversity  and 
the  testimonies  of  the  average  man,  despite  the  diver- 
sities of  definitions  of  the  religious  philosopher,  there  is 
a  widespread  conviction  that  some  people  are  religious 
and  some  are  not  religious,  and  that  the  religious  people 
are  characterized  by  something  they  have  in  common. 
That  is,  the  word  religion  conveys  a  fairly  definite 


RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGION  45 

general  idea.  The  confusion  in  which  we  find  ourselves 
when  we  try  to  define  religion  in  terms  of  someone's 
religion,  is  a  confusion  which  appears  whenever  we 
attempt  to  understand  the  general  through  the  particular. 
Throughout  the  world  men  are  engaged  in  earning  a 
livelihood.  What  a  task  it  would  be  to  explain  what 
work  is !  Such  an  explanation  would  have  to  include 
a  South  Sea  islander  shaking  nuts  off  of  a  tree  and 
Madame  Curie  making  polonium.  The  panorama  of 
all  human  beings  doing  millions  of  different  things  prom- 
ises ill  for  a  definition  of  work.  There  is,  however,  this 
in  common  to  them  all;  they  are  all  urged  on  by  the 
desire  to  live.  This  desire  for  well-being  expresses 
itself  in  a  myriad  of  ways.  In  much  the  same  way, 
there  is  a  desire  for  well-being  among  religious  people. 
They  seek  this  well-being  in  a  host  of  different  ways. 
The  point  is,  that  they  seek  it.  It  is  not  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  worker  and  the  non-worker,  and 
it  is  not  hard  to  distinguish  between  the  religious  and 
the  non-religious.  It  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  clear 
definition  of  religion.  It  is  sufficient  to  remember  that 
the  religious  man  finds  life  incomplete  and  he  seeks  to 
round  it  out.  He  deliberates  and  represents  to  his  mind 
certain  "  systems  of  truths/'  and  these  make  his  world 
a  more  intelligible  and  inhabitable  world.  His  heart 
hungers  for  a  happiness  which  he  cannot  find  apart 
from  what  he  terms  his  communion  with  God;  he  is 
prompted  to  many  courses  of  action  which  he  would  not 
take  were  he  not  actuated  by  a  desire  for  spiritual  en- 
largement. So  the  only  unity  we  may  find  in  religion 
is  a  unity  of  motive.  This  we  do  find,  whether  it  is  in 
the  Indian  beseeching  his  gods  to  give  him  skill  in  the 
chase  that  he  may  enjoy  life  and  prestige  among  his 


46  THE  SECTS 

fellows,  or  whether  it  is  a  Gladstone  seeking  in  the  quiet 
of  Westminster  Abbey  strength  for  the  guidance  of  an 
empire.  The  motive  is  the  desire  for  a  more  efficient 
Self  as  each  one  understands  efficiency  and  himself. 

Of  course,  there  is  a  unity  in  the  Christian  religion 
which  is  based  upon  its  historical  past.  All  Christianity 
employs  practically  the  same  body  of  writings,  and  in 
large  divisions  of  the  Church  there  is  a  unity  due  to 
tradition;  tradition  not  only  of  interpretation  but  of 
thought,  feeling  and  custom.  Imitation  plays  a  large 
part  in  levelling  down  natural  differences.  Indeed,  some 
of  the  subtle  spiritual  experiences  of  the  Christian,  which 
often  characterize  a  large  number  of  worshippers,  are 
due  to  an  imitation  of  each  other,  unconscious  but 
effective.  Nevertheless,  despite  the  same  sources  of 
instruction, — the  Scriptures,  the  Church,  the  customs  of 
the  past, — there  are  innumerable  differences  to  be  found 
among  those  holding  the  Christian  faith,  these  differences 
being  based  upon  individuality  which  no  levelling  force 
externally  imposed  can  obliterate.  We  shall  find  that 
these  differences  may  also  be  grouped  into  types. 


IV 

THE  SECTS 

IT  is  a  very  common  opinion  that  the  religious  life  in 
the  United  States  is  declining.  There  seem  to  be 
so  many  indications  of  this  that  it  is  rather  rare 
to  find  anyone  maintaining  the  opposite  view.  The 
many  idle  churches,  the  rows  of  vacant  pews  are  con- 
stantly pointed  to  as  arguments  that  the  Church  is  los- 
ing its  hold  upon  the  masses  of  the  people.  More  perti- 
nent to  the  close  observer  is  the  lack  of  vigour  which 
characterizes  religion.  Pessimism  within  the  Church, 
criticism  of  the  Church,  a  widespread  conviction  that 
something  is  wrong  with  organized  Christianity  char- 
acterize the  situation  to-day.  In  innumerable  ways 
this  dissatisfaction  expresses  itself.  One  of  the  "  Six 
Best  Sellers "  contrasts  the  life  of  to-day  with  ante- 
bellum days.  The  narrative  turns  upon  the  sharp  con- 
trast between  the  customs,  ideas  and  ideals  of  our 
forefathers  and  our  own.  One  striking  fact  is  strongly 
emphasized;  in  the  language  of  the  author  we  have 
"  ceased  to  be  a  religious  people."  Such  a  sentiment 
goes  unchallenged.  It  is  simply  accepted  as  one  of  the 
obvious  things  which  everybody  nowadays  is  familiar 
with. 

Against  this  general  consensus  of  opinion,  the  gov- 
ernment "  Report  upon  Religious  Bodies  in  the  United 
States  for  the  Year  1906 "  urges  a  tremendous  argu- 

47 


48  THE  SECTS 

ment.  In  the  long  columns  of  close-written  figures  an 
astonishing  eulogy  of  the  Church  is  wrought  out.  It 
appears  that  over  thirty-two  million  people  in  the  United 
States  are  communicants  in  the  Christian  churches. 
Compared  with  the  population  of  1906,  there  were  391 
church  members  for  every  1,000  people.  In  1850  there 
were  only  149  church  members  for  every  1,000  persons. 
That  is,  the  proportion  of  church  members  to  the  whole 
population  has  much  more  than  doubled.  This  is  a 
strange  way  for  organized  religion  to  die!  In  the  last 
sixteen  years  the  nation  has  been  growing  very  rapidly; 
but  the  church  membership  has  been  growing  more 
rapidly.  In  1890,  32.7  per  cent,  of  the  population  be- 
longed to  the  Church.  In  1906,  39.1  per  cent,  of  the 
people  were  enrolled  in  the  churches.  Of  course,  much 
of  this  great  growth  is  due  to  immigration  from  Roman 
Catholic  countries;  but  when  that  is  deducted,  we  still 
have  the  significant  fact  that  the  Protestant  membership 
in  the  churches  increased  from  22.3  per  cent,  in  1890  to 
24.1  per  cent,  in  1906. 

These  figures  do  not  tell  the  whole  story,  for  we  must 
remember  that  a  large  portion  of  the  population  is 
ineligible  to  church  membership;  there  are  millions  of 
children  who  by  the  rules  of  many  churches  cannot  be 
members.  Moreover,  there  are  thousands  of  adherents 
to  the  churches  who  are  not  communicants.  In  many 
cases  these  people  are  faithful  supporters  of  the 
churches  and  are  frequently  among  its  most  devout 
subscribers. 

Another  impressive  feature  in  this  great  census  argu- 
ment appears  in  the  figures  representing  the  wealth  of 
the  Church.  Over  a  billion,  two  hundred-fifty  millions 
of  dollars  are  invested  in  church  property.  What  a 


THE  SECTS  49 

tremendous  power  is  represented  there!  Another  indi- 
cation of  the  colossal  power  of  the  Church  is  this:  in 
one  year  over  thirty-eight  millions  of  dollars  were  ap- 
plied to  Christian  purposes,  over  twelve  millions  went 
into  the  spreading  of  Christian  ideals  and  the  Christian 
life  in  missions  at  home,  over  seventeen  millions  were 
spent  in  educating  the  youth  of  the  land,  while  eight 
millions  more  went  into  hospitals  and  asylums.  An- 
other fund  of  over  eight  millions  crossed  the  seas  to 
spread  the  spirit  of  Christ  in  foreign  lands. 

Had  we  only  the  statement  of  the  census  and  no 
other  data  for  our  judgment,  we  should  conclude  that 
the  Christian  church  of  the  United  States  was  the  most 
powerful  organization  in  the  world.  With  its  colossal 
aggregation  of  people  who  have  pledged  themselves  to 
follow  Christ;  with  the  immense  wealth  invested  in 
their  plants  and  the  great  sums  continually  applied  in 
furthering  their  cause,  surely,  their  influence  should  be 
irresistible.  When  we  recall  the  effective  work  done 
by  much  smaller  bodies,  with  much  smaller  resources,  in 
every  period  of  history,  it  would  be  but  natural  to  expect 
the  very  greatest  achievements  from  American  Chris- 
tianity. Why  is  it,  then,  that  the  Church  is  so  ineffective? 
Why  is  it  that  throughout  the  land  there  is  a  unani- 
mous conviction  that  the  Church  is  almost  a  negligible 
factor  in  national  life?  Scores  of  smaller  organizations 
with  very  much  less  wealth  make  themselves  much  more 
effectively  felt.  In  the  great  moral  issues,  in  the  great 
ethical  crises,  this  tremendous  body  of  people  seems 
supine  and  inert. 

The  evidence  of  the  Church's  weakness  appears  also 
in  the  census,  wrapped  up  with  the  evidences  of  its 


50  THE  SECTS 

strength.  This  great  body  is  not  a  unit.  It  is  a  com- 
position of  many  factions.  Instead  of  one  great  Church, 
it  is  one  hundred  eighty-six  denominations.  Surely  it 
is  a  wonder  that  a  house  so  divided  stands  at  all.  Nor 
does  the  spirit  of  the  times  seem  to  affect  its  disposi- 
to  divide  against  itself.  For  in  1890  there  were 
145  denominations,  and  in  1906  there  were  41  more. 
Not  all  of  these,  however,  were  brought  into  existence 
by  schisms,  though  seventeen  had  their  origin  in  the 
spirit  of  secession.  If  the  denominations  were  arranged 
alphabetically  in  great  families,  we  should  find  almost 
every  one  a  victim  of  this  unchristian  malady.  The  Ad- 
ventists  head  the  list,  a  comparatively  young  denomina- 
tional family.  It  is  split  into  seven  branches.  There 
are  the  Evangelical  Adventists,  the  Life  and  Advent 
Union,  the  Advent  Christian  Church,  Seventh  Day  Ad- 
ventists, Church  of  God,  Churches  of  God,  Churches  of 
God  in  Jesus  Christ.  The  next  great  family,  the  Bap- 
tist, falls  into  sixteen  divisions.  The  next  denominational 
body,  the  "  Brethren,"  contains  a  little  over  ten  thou- 
sand people.  These  Brethren  display  their  brotherly 
spirit  by  splitting  into  four  branches.  There  are  the 
"  Exclusives,"  the  Open  Brethren,  a  sort  of  a  high- 
church  branch,  and  a  fourth  division  which  issued  from 
this  last  in  1890.  And  so  the  denominational  history 
goes.  It  is  too  long  and  too  monotonous  to  follow 
through  alphabetically.  The  five  largest  Protestant 
families  are  these:  the  Methodists  with  fifteen  divisions, 
the  Baptists  with  sixteen,  the  Presbyterians  with  twelve, 
the  Lutherans  with  twenty-four,  the  Disciples  of  Christ 
with  only  two.  The  Disciples  are  one  of  the  strongest 
and  most  rapidly  growing  churches  in  the  country. 
Their  comparative  unity  indicates  the  possibility  of  unity 


THE  SECTS  5! 

among  others.    And  it  offers  a  strong  argument  against 
the  devastating  spirit  of  the  sects. 

The  outcome  of  these  many  divisions  should  have 
been  foreseen  generations  ago.  There  is  a  seating  capac- 
ity of  over  fifty-eight  millions  in  the  church  buildings 
of  these  186  sects;  that  is,  there  is  room  enough  for 
nearly  twice  their  number  of  members.  A  large  por- 
tion of  that  billion  dollars  is  invested  in  empty  seats. 
In  the  language  of  the  Trusts,  "  The  plants  in  this  organ- 
ization have  been  ruinously  duplicated."  This  overlap- 
ping of  church  organization  is  a  most  obvious  source  of 
weakness,  though  a  number  of  the  sects  take  a  pride  in 
multiplying  their  plants.  Indeed,  some  Home  Mission 
Boards  consider  their  effectiveness  only  in  terms  of  new 
churches  started.  If  the  poor  and  puny  lives  of  these 
little  churches  flicker  and  then  go  out,  their  demise  is 
not  attributed  to  a  difficulty  in  church  strategy,  but 
rather  to  a  lack  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  work  of  the 
little  organization  so  foolishly  started.  Such  sectarian 
zeal  is  well  enough  in  many  instances.  It  quickly  puts 
a  church  of  some  kind  into  a  new  community,  and  that 
is  valuable  service.  However,  when  a  country  is  well 
settled,  then  a  new  church  may  be  an  evil.  It  may  violate 
the  law  of  demand  and  supply.  The  missionary  society 
that  forces  a  church  upon  a  community  which  is  already 
well  churched,  does  so  in  the  expectation  that  a  demand 
for  this  church  will  appear  later.  In  very  many  cases 
no  such  demand  ever  arises,  and  so  such  superfluous 
churches  are  not  only  a  loss  to  the  Christian  cause  but  an 
obstruction  to  the  work  of  the  other  churches.  Though 
this  evil  is  very  widely  spread  throughout  the  country, 
it  is  not  felt  so  keenly  in  the  large  cities  as  in  the  smaller 
towns;  for  in  the  large  cities  there  is  more  apt  to  be  a 


52  THE  SECTS 

greater  field  for  the  individual  church ;  though  in  down- 
town districts,  where  the  church-going  population  has 
thinned  out,  this  competition  is  often  a  serious  matter. 
The  following  facts  of  church  life — or  perhaps  we 
should  say  church  strife — in  two  little  towns  of  the  West 
are  very  characteristic.  In  one  town  of  800  souls  *  in 
a  far  western  state  there  are  eight  church  organizations, 
Roman  Catholic,  Presbyterian,  Baptist,  three  Lutheran, 
and  two  Methodist.  There  are  five  church  buildings,  all 
of  them  ugly,  unpainted,  ill-kept,  poorly  furnished. 
These  inhospitable  eyesores  have  been  struggling  for 
years  to  maintain  themselves.  Not  one  is  able  to  sup- 
port a  minister  without  generous  donations  from  its 
parent  denomination.  The  presence  of  the  Catholic 
church  is  understood.  The  three  Lutheran  churches  are 
divided  along  racial  lines,  German,  Scandinavian  and 
Danish.  The  two  Methodist  churches  represent  the 
Northern  and  Southern  divisions.  They  are  "  located 
on  opposite  corners  of  the  same  block,  with  nothing  be- 
tween them,  the  building  of  the  latter  enjoys  the  pre- 
eminence of  being  higher  up  on  the  hillside;  but  this 
advantage  is  offset  to  some  extent  by  the  greater  size 
of  the  former's  steeple."  Organized  Christianity  in  this 
little  town  has  one  Catholic  and  seven  Protestant  bodies. 
There  is  a  constant  succession  of  ministers  who  under- 
take to  improve  the  moral  and  religious  condition  of  the 
town  and  who  give  up  in  despair.  There  are  long 
periods  during  which  a  pulpit  will  be  vacant  and  the 
Sunday-school  will  try  to  keep  up  the  church  life.  The 
services  of  the  churches  are  very  poorly  attended  and 
dispiriting,  the  best  singers  being  scattered  among  the 

*Wm.  Boyle:  "Transplanted  Denominationalism,"   The  Out- 
look, 83,  p.  323. 


THE  SECTS  53 

different  churches.  "  An  un-Christian  spirit  of  envy 
and  jealousy  is  aroused  by  the  temporary  success  of 
any  one  of  the  churches."  This  large  number  of  churches 
in  so  small  a  place  does  not  augur  a  high  moral  stand- 
ard or  widespread  religious  habits.  For  three  or  four 
months  in  summer  all  the  stores  are  kept  open  on  Sun- 
day. Four  saloons  do  business  seven  days  in  the  week, 
with  their  accompaniments  of  gambling  and  lewdness. 
When  low  shows  visit  the  town  they  are  very  well  at- 
tended. "  The  sensuous  and  the  pleasure-loving  spirit 
is  everywhere  in  evidence."  Mr.  Boyle  believes  that 
"  denominationalism  is  directly  responsible  for  these  con- 
ditions. Too  weak  to  assert  any  influence  alone,  and 
too  jealous  to  act  together,  the  churches  do  not  com- 
mand the  respect  of  the  community,  and  are  unable  to 
stand  the  tide  of  prevailing  evil.  Each  minister  is  too 
timid  to  oppose  the  prevalent  evil  customs  alone,  dread- 
ing the  reflex  action  of  .possible  sentiment  on  himself 
and  his  feeble  church.  ...  Strange  to  say,  the  denomi- 
national spirit  of  the  town  is  not  strong.  Whenever 
there  are  special  attractions  at  any  one  church  in  the 
way  of  music  or  of  a  strange  preacher,  members  of 
other  churches  do  not  hesitate  to  flock  there,  leaving 
their  own  minister  to  preach  to  empty  pews.  The  Pres- 
byterian church  has  on  its  roll  the  names  of  men  and 
women  who  have  been  connected  with  ten  different 
denominations  elsewhere,  several  of  which  are  repre- 
sented here.  Certainly  in  this  case  it  is  neither  doc- 
trines nor  form  of  government  that  brings  them  together. 
Members  of  one  church  frequently  transfer  their  mem- 
bership to  another  church,  for  reasons  having  no  connec- 
tion with  doctrines  or  polity.  A  large  majority  of  the 
members  would  be  unable  to  give  an  intelligent  account 


54  THE  SECTS 

of  the  distinctive  differences  in  the  belief  of  the  different 
denominations." 

Another  interesting  study  of  a  small  town  in  the 
West  reveals  a  similar  situation.*  Another  little  West- 
ern town  of  1,347  inhabitants  has  eight  different  denomi- 
nations and  seven  church  buildings,  two  of  which  are 
unused,  and  the  third  open  only  two  or  three  times  a 
year.  Each  of  the  English-speaking  Evangelical  churches 
hopes  that  the  other  will  die  and  end  the  bitter 
competition.  The  feeble  efforts  for  consolidation  have 
failed,  because  of  a  few  radical  sectarians  and  the  zeal 
of  the  mission  secretaries.  The  population  of  the  little 
city  shows  by  the  state  census  of  1905  that  65  per  cent, 
of  the  people  are  born  of  foreign  parentage,  so  only 
475  are  of  American  descent  now.  Studies  in  church 
attendance  show  that  some  15  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent, 
of  the  population  is  church-going.  "  Taking  five  as  a 
normal  family  the  number  of  possible  English-speaking 
Evangelical  church-goers  in  X  is  about  285;  admitting 
that  50  per  cent,  of  them  attend  church  regularly  we 
have  142  constant  attendants.  (This  figure  is  above  the 
real  attendance.)  Again  using  our  average  family  we 
get  95  per  cent,  heads  of  households,  45  of  which  will 
admit  as  subscribers  for  church  support.  A  church 
which  raises  $1,500  a  year  for  all  purposes  is  perhaps  on 
a  normal  and  possible  basis;  such  a  church  needs  50 
subscribers  and  an  average  subscription  of  $30  (which 
is  again  higher  than  the  average  for  small  towns). 
A  priori — the  town  is  capable  of  supporting  one  live, 
self-respecting  religious  organization  for  its  American 
population.  The  seating  capacity  of  the  English-speaking 
churches  is  825,  nearly  double  the  American  population. 

*A.  J.  Kennedy:  "Religious  Living,"  Independent,  64,  p.  795. 


THE  SECTS  55 

The  church  buildings  cost  $21,300;  $7,400  lies  abso- 
lutely idle  and  worthless.  The  inner  history  of  these 
forlorn  churches  is  rather  painful  reading.  A  Congre- 
gational church  was  established  in  1871.  It  has  been 
assisted  by  the  missionary  society,  and  in  1906  the  so- 
ciety had  paid  $10,504  for  its  support.  A  Methodist 
church  appeared  on  the  scene  in  1873  and  continued  its 
work  until  1902,  receiving  $3,700  aid.  A  Baptist  church 
crowded  into  this  little  community  in  1879,  and  in  1906 
had  received  $3,100  aid.  In  1882  an  Episcopal  church 
endeavoured  to  establish  itself,  but  gave  up  the  strug- 
gle in  1891.  In  all,  these  struggling  little  churches  re- 
ceived $18,154  from  their  parent  churches  to  carry  on 
their  ineffectual  and  demoralizing  competition. 

"  Such  a  condition  as  that  outlined  above  brings  re- 
ligion into  discredit  in  the  community;  causes  many 
to  scoff  at  the  Church;  takes  the  heart  out  of  zealous 
lay  workers;  and  makes  it  difficult  for  a  minister  of 
religion  to  hold  up  his  head.  .  .  ,  The  writer  has  been 
told  of  one  missionary  secretary  who  boasted  before  his 
denominational  convention  that  while  he  had  never  dis- 
obeyed the  rule  of  his  church,  which  makes  it  necessary 
to  have  three  persons  to  constitute  the  local  church,  he 
had  organized  many  a  church  with  one  lay  person,  him- 
self and  God.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  this  de- 
nomination is  notorious  for  the  number  of  its  dead 
churches."  There  is  a  crying  need  for  some  inter- 
denominational union  work  to  decide  what  denomina- 
tion should  enter  into  a  new  field.  There  is  also  a  great 
need  for  a  union  of  missionary  societies  to  weed  out 
dead  churches.  - 

The  evils  of  over-churching  a  community  are  per- 
petuated. No  church  willingly  gives  up  its  career,  for 


56  THE  SECTS 

this  often  means  a  loss  of  employment,  a  possible  loss 
of  property  and  almost  inevitably  a  sacrifice  of  pride. 
When  a  church  has  struggled  for  years  to  maintain 
itself,  it  usually  engenders  a  spirit  of  antagonism  to- 
ward other  churches.  This  antagonism  frequently  runs 
out  into  social  cliques.  So  intense  is  the  feeling  in  many 
cases  that  members  of  one  church  will  not  attend  the 
services  of  another  church  should  the  missionary  so- 
cieties close  their  own  church  doors.  However,  such 
spirit  is  so  thoroughly  anti-Christian  that  it  would  seem 
to  make  little  difference  whether  people  of  that  ilk  had  a 
church  to  worship  in  or  not.  Certainly  it  is  a  duty  of 
those  who  have  any  control  of  the  situation  to  starve 
many  of  these  hostile  little  organizations  into  decency. 
The  evil,  of  course,  does  not  cease  in  the  mere  over- 
lapping of  churches,  in  their  own  localities,  but  reaches 
back  to  the  mother-heart  of  the  parent  church,  where  an 
appeal  is  constantly  made  for  the  means  of  spreading 
the  gospel,  and  often  the  appeal  is  met  with  great  gener- 
osity and  noble  sacrifices,  in  the  misleading  illusion 
that  the  money  will  be  spent  in  spreading  the  principles 
of  Christianity.  If  the  real  situation  were  presented 
to  the  people  who  help  sustain  these  innumerable  con- 
flicting churches,  a  remedy  would  not  be  far  to  seek. 
Perhaps  the  subtle  evils  are  the  worst.  Diversion  of 
attention  from  the  central  purposes  of  Christianity  to 
the  necessities  of  organization,  can  only  mean  a  sub- 
version of  great  ideals.  The  tone  and  the  temper  of  the 
work  are  vitiated.  It  is,  also,  a  great  loss  to  be  deprived 
of  the  inspiration  of  fellowship  in  a  great  work,  or  a 
great  movement.  But  it  is  an  incomparably  greater  loss 
and  far  more  dispiriting  to  champion  the  petty  interests 
of  a  conflicting  denomination.  The  inspiration  alone 


THE  SECTS  57 

which  would  arise  from  a  genuine  cooperation  of  all  the 
American  churches  would  in  itself  far  outweigh  any 
particular  sacrifices  which  might  be  occasioned. 

The  welfare  of  American  Christianity  is  a  matter  of 
acute  interest  to  every  intelligent  citizen.  The  Church  is 
one  of  many  social  institutions  which  go  into  the  mak- 
ing of  that  form  of  society  we  call  civilized.  It  is  an 
institution  for  which  no  substitute  has  been  found.  Its 
many  avenues  of  help  to  the  afflicted,  or  needy,  are  like 
the  irrigating  canals  of  a  dry  land;  when  the  reservoirs 
are  full  of  water,  fruits  and  flowers  spring  up  all  along 
the  lines  of  the  canals.  When  the  water  system  is  in 
disorder,  meagre  crops  and  withered  vegetation  are  in 
evidence  everywhere.  The  result  of  putting  the  church 
system  in  order  would  show  immediately  in  many  ways. 
Dispirited  and  hopeless  little  churches  would  give  place 
to  efficient  and  successful  churches.  Colleges  crying  for 
aid  to  keep  up  a  denominational  name  would  give  their 
vigour  to  fewer  institutions,  but  to  more  students.  Hos- 
pitals would  feel  the  boon  of  the  savings  (from  the  sec- 
tarian battles)  which  would  minister  to  the  sick.  Men 
who  have  prayed  in  foreign  lands  for  dollars,  where 
dollars  mean  the  new  civilization,  would  have  the  desire 
of  their  lives  answered.  There  is  a  "  third  party  "  in 
the  warfare  of  the  sects,  the  public.  It  has  its  rights  in 
this  conflict  as  truly  as  in  the  conflicts  of  capital  and 
labour.  The  public  cannot  be  ignored.  It  will  take  the 
situation  in  its  own  hands,  if  the  leaders  in  the  Church 
cannot  lead  the  way  out  of  the  present  chaos.  The  un- 
conscious drifting  from  the  old  attitude  of  respect  and 
reverence  toward  the  Church  will  become  a  con- 
scious and  determined  revolt  against  an  aggregation  of 
self-centred  sects.  Then  some  substitute  will  be  tried, 


58  THE  SECTS 

perhaps  found,  which  will  make  for  unity  in  well-doing, 
if  not  in  thinking.  This  the  various  orders  of  fraternal 
societies  have  almost  succeeded  in  doing.  A  few  more 
great  movements  of  a  similar  character,  and  the  Church 
as  an  organization  will  be  too  pitifully  crippled  to  do 
the  work  expected  of  it. 

The  1 86  sects  are  an  anachronism,  and  are  out  of 
keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the  American  people.  The 
very  recital  of  the  list  of  sects,  as  seen  below,  is  an  in- 
dictment of  them  and  an  aspersion  upon  their  loyalty 
to  the  real  spirit  of  Christianity.  It  tells  a  story  of 
real  danger  to  which  both  the  patriot  and  the  Christian 
must  hearken.  For  it  is  impossible  that  the  multitude 
of  little  sects  shall  continue  to  multiply,  or,  indeed,  to 
continue  to  retain  their  separate  organizations.  The 
first  step,  of  course,  is  for  each  denominational  family 
to  put  its  house  in  order.  This  would  be  a  great  step 
in  advance,  for  there  are  many  divisions  in  denomina- 
tional families  throughout  the  list. 

The  various  sects  are  arranged  below  in  the  order 
of  the  last  Religious  Census. 

Number  of 
Denomination  Members 

ALL  DENOMINATIONS 32,936,445 

PROTESTANT  BODIES 20,287,742 

ADVENTIST  BODIES     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  92,735 

Advent  Christian  Church 26,799 

Seventh-day  Adventist  Denomination     .         „         .  62,211 

Other  Adventists   (5  bodies)         ....  3,725 

BAPTIST  BODIES         .......  5,662,234 

Baptists .  5,323,183 

Northern  Baptist  Convention      ....  1,052,105 

Southern  Baptist  Convention       ....  2,009,471 

National  Baptist  Convention  (Coloured)     .         .  2,261,607 

Free  Baptists 81,359 

Freewill  Baptists 40,280 

General  Baptists    .         .         .        >        ..         .         .  30,097 


THE  SECTS 


59 


Number  of 

Denomination  Members 

Primitive   Baptists         ......  102,311 

Coloured  Primitive  Baptists  in  America           .         .  35,076 

Other  Baptists  (8  bodies) 49,928 

CHRISTIANS  (Christian  Connection)  ....  110,117, 

CHURCH  OF  CHRIST,  SCIENTIST 85,717 

CONGREGATIONALISTS          ......  700,480 

DISCIPLES  OR  CHRISTIANS 1,142,359 

Disciples  of  Christ 982,701 

Churches  of  Christ 159,658 

DUNKERS  OR  GERMAN  BAPTIST  BRETHREN  .         .        .  97, 144 

German  Baptist  Brethren  Church  (Conservative)  .  76,547 

Other  Dunkers  (3  bodies) 20,597 

EVANGELICAL   BODIES 174,780 

Evangelical   Association 104,898 

United  Evangelical  Church  .....  69,882 

FRIENDS 113,172 

Society  of  Friends  (Orthodox)     ....  91,161 

Other  Friends  (3  bodies) 22,611 

GERMAN  EVANGELICAL  PROTESTANT  BODIES        .         .  34,704 

GERMAN  EVANGELICAL  SYNOD  OF  NORTH  AMERICA      .  293,137 

INDEPENDENT  CHURCHES .  73,673 

LUTHERAN  BODIES     .         .                  .         .         .         .  2,112,494 

General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church 

in  the  United  States  of  America       .         .         .  270,221 
United  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church 

in  the  South 47,747 

General    Council    of    the    Evangelical    Lutheran 

Church  in  North  America  .....  462,177 
Evangelical    Lutheran    Synodical    Conference    of 

America 648,529 

United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  in  America    .  185,027 
Evangelical   Lutheran  Joint   Synod   of   Ohio   and 

Other   States 123,408 

Hauge's  Norwegian  Lutheran  Synod     .         .         .  33,268 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  Iowa  and  Other 

States 110,254 

Synod   for  the   Norwegian   Evangelical   Lutheran 

Church  in  America     ......  107,712 

Norwegian  Lutheran  Free  Church         .         .         .  26,928 

Other  Lutherans   (14  bodies)         ....  97,223 

MENNONITE  BODIES 54,798 

METHODIST  BODIES .  5,749,83$ 


6o 


THE  SECTS 


Denomination 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church 2,986,154 

Methodist  Protestant  Church         ....  178,544 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South        .         .         .  1,638,480 

Free  Methodist  Church  of  North  America    .         .  32,838 

African  Methodists 869,710 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church         .         .  494,777 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church  .         .  184,542 

Coloured  Methodist  Episcopal  Church        .         .  172,996 

Other  African  Methodists   (4  bodies)         .         .  17,395 

Other  Methodists   (4  bodies)         ....  44,112 

PRESBYTERIAN  BODIES 1,830,555 

Presbyterian    Church    in    the    United    States    of 

America 1,179,566 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  ....  195,770 

United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North  America      .  130,342 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States      .         .  266,345 

Other  Presbyterians  (8  bodies)     ....  58,532 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH        ....  886,942 

REFORMED  BODIES 449,514 

Reformed  Church  in  America        ....  124,938 

Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States         .         .  292,654 

Christian  Reformed  Church  .....  26,669 

Hungarian  Reformed  Church  in  America       .         .  5,253 

SWEDISH  EVANGELICAL  BODIES  .....  27,712 

UNITARIANS 70,542 

UNITED  BRETHREN  BODIES 296,050 

Church  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ       .         .  274,649 
Church   of   the  United  Brethren   in   Christ    (Old 

Constitution)      .......  21,401 

UNIVERSALISTS 64,158 

OTHER  PROTESTANT  BODIES        .....  164,287 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 12,070,142 

JEWISH  CONGREGATIONS     ......  101,457 

LATTER-DAY  SAINTS 256,647 

Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day  Saints  .         .  215,796 
Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day 

Saints 40,851 

EASTERN  ORTHODOX  CHURCHES 129,606 

Greek  Orthodox   Church 90,751 

Other  Eastern  Orthodox  Churches  (3  bodies)       .  38,855 

SPIRITUALISTS 35,056 

ALL  OTHER  BODIES 46,655 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS 

THE  exuberance  of  sect-life  in  the  United  States 
is  exactly  what  any  sociologist  would  expect. 
With  such  ideal  conditions  it  would  be  contrary 
to  the  trends  of  history  if  only  one  great  church  spread 
over  the  states.  Nowhere,  in  all  history,  have  social 
conditions  favoured  the  growth  of  sects  as  they  do  now 
and  here;  and,  though  the  conditions  themselves  are 
not  the  direct  cause  of  the  sects,  any  more  than  the 
absence  of  the  gardener  is  the  cause  of  the  spread  of 
undergrowth  in  the  garden,  still  such  conditions  as  are 
found  here  are  the  most  conducive  to  sect  formation. 

Of  course  the  most  direct  producer  of  variety  in 
church  organization  is  immigration.  From  all  parts  of 
the  civilized  world  lines  of  pilgrims  stream  to  this  coun- 
try, bringing  with  them  their  own  faith,  which  has 
taken  on  the  fashion  of  their  particular  social  life  and 
racial  nature.  Here  they  may  retain,  throughout  all 
time,  the  characteristics  which  belonged  to  their  former 
home.  No  official  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  upon  them 
to  direct  them  into  an  established  church.  So  the  "  Re- 
ligious Liberty,"  of  which  everyone  who  has  caught 
the  spirit  of  the  New  World  is  champion,  may  justly 
be  considered  the  guardian  of  the  sects.  For  not  only 
does  it  welcome  all  comers  from  abroad,  but  it  is  equally 
hospitable  to  all  additions  to  denominational  families 

61 


62  THE  SECTS 

here.  Such  additions  are  to  be  expected.  One  of  the 
first  lessons  of  sociology  shows  that  new  ideas,  philoso- 
phies, schools,  social  movements,  grow  up  where  the 
population  is  not  homogeneous,  but  where  people  of 
various  cultures  mingle.  So  the  great  water  courses  in 
ancient  times  were  the  seats  of  civilization.  For  along 
the  Tigris,  the  Euphrates,  the  Nile,  among  the  islands 
of  the  ^Lgean  Sea,  the  ships  and  people  of  many  places 
would  meet  and  exchange  ideas  and  customs  as  well  as 
merchandise.  This  ancient  principle  is  at  work  to-day. 
No  other  nation  shows  such  versatility,  such  prodigality 
of  invention,  such  a  profusion  of  social  movements. 
This  restless,  progressive  spirit,  however,  does  not  affect 
Christianity  as  much  as  might  be  expected.  It  does  en- 
courage numerous  leaders  to  start  innovations  occa- 
sionally, and  such  leaders  are  allowed  all  the  latitude 
they  demand.  It  does  keep  the  mind  alert  and  incites 
the  vigorous  to  protest  against  "  wrongs,"  real  or  fan- 
cied. It  does  make  for  a  toleration  of  opposing  be- 
liefs, which  cannot  be  found  in  an  old  country  where 
the  population  has  remained  homogeneous  and  the  con- 
ventions of  centuries  rest  upon  the  people.  It  is  the 
spirit  of  a  new  country,  where  there  is  room  for  all 
comers  and  all  opinions.  Not  an  unmixed  blessing  are 
the  sects  incubated  in  so  genial  an  atmosphere. 

As  has  been  said,  such  a  spirit  and  such  incentives 
will  not  explain  the  actual  origin  of  the  186  sects.  As 
a  historical  fact,  the  several  nations  which  sent  explorers 
to  America  in  the  sixteenth  century  are  the  forbears  of 
the  sects.  Spain  led  the  vanguard.  She  sent  mission- 
aries with  her  explorers.  They  established  church 
centres  everywhere  they  went.  This  was  to  be  a  Roman 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS 

Catholic  country.  When  a  little  band  of  Scotch-Irish 
Presbyterians  ventured  to  settle  in  a  Spanish  domain,  it 
was  speedily  obliterated  with  the  sword.  Had  this  sort 
of  intolerance  continued,  and  had  the  Spaniards  spread 
their  domain  north  as  well  as  west,  there  could  have 
been  no  sects.  With  the  coming  of  the  English,  Dutch 
and  Scotch-Irish,  a  number  of  the  denominations  which 
issued  from  the  Reformation  found  footholds  here  in 
colonial  times.  Fortunately,  the  country  was  large 
enough  for  all.  Had  it  been  so  small  that  Puritan, 
Baptist  and  Quaker  were  forced  to  be  near  neighbours, 
it  is  probable  that  only  the  strongest  would  have 
survived. 

From  colonial  days  to  the  present,  the  differences  of 
nationality  have  been  one  of  the  most  prolific  causes  of 
sectarianism.  Differences  of  language,  forms  of  wor- 
ship, systems  of  doctrine,  are  almost  invariably  involved. 
Even  where  the  church  doctrine,  practice  and  heritage 
are  the  same,  as  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  dif- 
ferences of  language  will  call  for  different  services ;  and 
in  many  Catholic  communities,  where  the  languages  are 
not  a  source  of  separation,  a  natural  attraction  for  like 
to  like,  a  "  consciousness  of  kind  "  often  separates  one 
people  from  another.  The  French  wish  a  Church  of 
their  own,  and  the  Irish  do  not  want  the  Italians.  Out 
of  the  friction  the  Catholic  Church  loses  many  adher- 
ents, though  her  skill  in  managing  the  situation  is  born 
of  long  practice.  After  a  generation  has  passed  and 
the  children  of  the  foreigner  have  gone  through  the 
American  schools,  these  national  antipathies  disappear. 
If  the  jealousies  and  animosities,  which  so  easily  grow 
up  between  different  people  of  different  languages  and 
traditions,  could  be  wisely  handled  through  one  genera- 


64  THE  SECTS 

tion,  the  great  cause  of  disruption  would  vanish.  For 
the  intermarrying  and  the  levelling  down  of  social  inter- 
course reduce  the  artificial  differences  of  nationality  to 
something  like  a  uniformity.  Those  genuine  racial  traits 
which  remain,  however,  will  not  disappear,  except  after 
several  generations  of  intermarrying.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  factions  grow  up  before  the  Americanizing 
influences,  get  in  their  good  work,  the  organizations 
started  tend  to  perpetuate  themselves,  passing  down  to 
successive  generations  sects  which  originated  from  a 
situation  that  no  longer  exists.  Thus  are  the  sects  of 
the  fathers  visited  upon  the  children  long  after  the  third 
and  fourth  generations. 

Nothing  was  more  natural  than  the  drifting  apart  of 
different  national  stocks  in  the  growth  of  the  great 
Lutheran  Church,  though  the  splendid  work  of  Muhlen- 
berg  shows  the  possibilities  of  resisting  such  a  natural 
drift.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  there 
were  a  number  of  congregations  of  Dutch,  Swedish  and 
German  Lutherans  scattered  through  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  Each  was  jealous 
of  its  rights  and  privileges  and  tenacious  of  its  inde- 
pendence. Muhlenberg  succeeded  in  working  these  vari- 
ous, dissimilar  churches  into  one  great  organization, 
despite  the  great  obstacles  of  language,  separate  inter- 
ests, race  prejudices  and  separation  by  great  distances. 
As  years  went  on,  the  various  churches  used  English 
more  and  more,  their  interests  became  identified,  the 
older  forms  of  thought  and  custom  which  were  identified 
with  their  foreign  homes  became  more  uniform  and  took 
the  character  of  their  new  environment.  A  great  Ameri- 
can church  was  the  outcome.  Unfortunately,  issues 
arose  which  later  resulted  in  secessions.  Nevertheless, 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS  65 

the  heroic  work  of  the  men  who  brought  the  straggling, 
colonial  churches  into  one  great  brotherhood  stands  as 
a  precedent  and  an  inspiration,  and  presents  the  great 
issue  of  church  unity  squarely  before  the  twenty-four 
bodies  of  the  Lutheran  Church  of  to-day.  What  was 
done  nearly  two  centuries  ago  under  the  most  adverse 
circumstances,  could  surely  be  accomplished  on  a  far 
grander  scale  to-day.  The  Lutheran  churches  have  much 
in  common.  They  have  very  much  the  same  creeds,  doc- 
trines and  traditions.  They  have  the  high  honour  of 
carrying  the  name  of  the  founder  of  Protestantism. 
It  is  a  stain  upon  their  page  in  Christian  history  that 
they  cannot  bring  their  Norwegian,  Danish,  Swedish, 
German  and  Finnish  brethren  into  one  church,  as  they 
become  citizens  of  one  and  the  same  nation. 

The  Reform  churches,  like  the  Lutheran,  owe  their 
diversity  mainly  to  national  differences,  and,  like  the 
Lutheran,  they  should  be  able  to  organize  much  more 
closely  than  they  do  at  present.  One  of  the  reasons 
for  maintaining  the  characteristics  of  a  sect  which  had 
its  origin  in  national  differences,  is  isolation.  Thus  the 
Bunkers  were  very  largely  farmers  in  colonial  times, 
and  their  faith  spread  in  rural  districts,  with  the  re- 
sult that  they  have  changed  very  little  up  to  the  present 
time,  and  wish  to  change  still  less. 

To-day  the  immigration  from  countries  where  the 
Eastern  Orthodox  Church,  i.e.,  the  Greek  Church,  is 
dominant,  is  producing  Russian,  Servian,  Syrian  and 
Greek  Orthodox  churches.  Closely  allied  to  the  schisms 
whicb  grow  out  of  national  differences,  are  those  di- 
visions in  the  Christian  church  which  grow  out  of 
racial  differences.  Many  writers  do  not  draw  a  sharp 
line  between  racial  and  national  distinctions;  they  fre- 


66  THE  SECTS 

quently  use  the  words  interchangeably.  In  the  present 
instance,  we  shall  mean  by  racial  merely  the  Indian  and 
African  as  contrasted  with  the  white  races.  Among 
the  Indians,  the  spread  of  Christianity  presents  a  very 
interesting  psychological  study.  The  way  in  which  the 
Catholic  Church  converted  the  Indian,  and  the  resultant 
Indian  Catholicism,  is  an  interesting  example  of  the 
possibilities,  or  perhaps  we  should  say  the  impossibilities, 
gf  imposing  one  type  of  Christianity  upon  an  uncivilized 
people.  Of  course,  a  similar  situation  appears  where 
Protestantism  has  spread  among  the  Indians.  It  would 
seem  that  different  tribes,  with  different  possibilities 
of  civilization,  are  appealed  to  differently  by  the  dif- 
ferent sects. 

Before  the  war  the  negroes  worshipped  in  the  churches 
of  the  whites;  they  frequently  occupied  seats  in  the  gal- 
leries of  the  churches  where  their  masters  worshipped. 
After  the  war,  when  the  relations  between  the  whites  and 
the  blacks  were  seriously  changed,  the  negro  began  to 
establish  churches  of  his  own.  These  churches  have 
grown  splendidly.  It  is  a  pity  that  they  did  not  grow 
into  one  organization.  The  Methodists  have  five  divi- 
sions running  through  their  coloured  churches.  The 
next  largest  body  of  coloured  worshippers  is  the  Bap- 
tists. Between  the  Baptists  and  the  Methodists  there 
are  a  number  of  differences  such  as  church  government, 
ritual  and  minor  points  in  doctrine ;  but  these  hardly  out- 
weigh what  they  have  in  common,  especially  among  the 
negro  churches.  For  the  negro  type  of  religious  life  is 
so  thoroughly  characteristic  of  his  race,  and  differs  so 
little  among  his  kind,  that  the  differences  which  grew  up 
in  the  sects  of  the  white  man  have  little  significance  for 
him.  Surely,  if  there  is  a  people  to  whom  one  general 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS  67 

type    of    church    worship    is    congenial,    these    Afro- 
Americans  are  that  people. 

If  the  two  former  causes  of  disunion,  nation  and  race, 
are  due  to  an  act  of  God,  then  truly  the  cause  we  are 
about  to  study  is  due  to  an  act  of  Satan.  Fifty  years  ago 
the  nation  fought  out  the  question  of  disunion.  Long 
before  the  first  gun  was  fired,  the  issue  had  arisen  in  the 
churches.  There  the  nation  had  a  right  to  witness  the 
great  questions  discussed  in  a  Christian  spirit.  The  bit- 
terness which  ran  through  the  country  should  have 
stopped  at  the  doors  of  the  Church.  It  did  not.  Chris- 
tianity as  represented  by  the  sects  of  that  day  proved 
pitifully  incapable  of  coping  with  the  problems  of  the 
nation.  The  Church  failed  to  lead  the  nation  in  paths 
of  peace.  Surely  that  was  a  bad  enough  failure,  but  to 
be  leaders  in  disunion  and  antagonism  was  immeasurably 
worse.  That  was  a  discreditable  chapter  in  church 
history.  It  is  not  so  ugly  as  the  chapters  written  and 
being  written  since.  Long  ago  the  country  was  re- 
united, but  the  churches  are  still  divided,  presenting  the 
spectacle  of  the  perpetuation  through  generations  of  an 
animosity  which  the  world  has  forgotten,  but  which  still 
rankles  in  the  Church.  Men  who  fought  against  each 
other  in  the  Civil  War  fought  together  against  a  com- 
mon enemy  thirty  years  later,  but  the  churches  of  Christ 
which  opposed  each  other  in  the  sixties,  continued  to 
send  out  missionaries  to  compete  with  each  other  forty 
years  after  Lee  surrendered.  We  saw  in  the  last  chap- 
ter how  the  Northern  and  Southern  branches  of  one 
church  were  fighting  each  other,  rather  than  a  common 
enemy,  in  our  own  Northwest.  Is  it  any  wonder  that 
leadership  has  passed  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Church? 


68  THE  SECTS 

Into  what  sort  of  a  calamity  would  a  nation  fall  led  by 
a  church  actuated  with  such  a  spirit? 

The  obstacles  .which  tend  to  prevent  the  reunion  of 
over  two  million  Methodists  in  the  North  with  nearly  a 
million  and  a  half  in  the  South,  are  difficulties  which 
these  great  bodies  could  surely  overcome,  if  they  were 
animated  by  as  moving  a  spirit  for  Christian  union  as 
they  were  by  the  war  spirit  of  a  generation  ago.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Baptist  Church,  with  nearly  two 
millions  of  worshippers  in  the  South  and  nearly  a  million 
in  the  North.  What  a  magnificent  army  these  churches 
would  present  if  they  marched  together!  If  they  took 
the  initiative,  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the  other 
divisions  occasioned  by  the  Civil  War  would  be  healed. 
The  "  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States,"  which 
sought  to  be  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Confederated 
States,  would  probably  be  truer  to  its  name  if  the  spirit 
of  union  and  self-denial  for  the  great  cause  of  Christ 
became  widespread  throughout  its  churches  in  the  coun- 
try. Indeed,  the  first  step  toward  strengthening  the 
Church,  that  it  may  regain  its  place  among  the  great 
forces  that  direct  the  nation,  would  seem  to  be  in  a  re- 
union of  these  long-severed  family  ties. 

Another  cause  of  disruption  is  in  the  Church  itself;  it 
grows  out  of  differences  in  methods  of  administration. 
Church  government  or  polity  has  occasioned  a  number 
of  different  forms  of  church  organization.  This  par- 
ticular type  of  disruption  has  not  played  a  very  promi- 
nent part  in  the  making  of  the  sects  in  America ;  though 
it  has  been  very  influential  in  the  history  of  the  Church 
elsewhere.  Time  was  when  the  question,  whether  a 
pope,  a  bishop  or  a  presbyter  should  administer  the 
affairs  of  the  Church,  presented  an  issue  of  the  very 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS  69 

greatest  importance.  The  great  forms  of  church  govern- 
ment were  fairly  well  established  before  Christianity 
spread  to  America.  Perhaps  America's  greatest  con- 
tribution is  one  which  grows  out  of  the  spirit  of  the 
country,  and  gives  to  each  individual  church  an  inde- 
pendence which  is  impossible  in  those  polities  which 
grew  up  in  monarchical  countries. 

Occasionally  in  the  history  of  the  American  Church,  a 
rebellion  has  occurred  against  a  too-rigid  church  govern- 
ment. The  Methodist  Protestant  Church  took  issue  with 
its  parent  body  upon  the  question  of  representation  in 
the  conference  by  lay  members,  with  the  result  that  this 
difficulty  of  our  great-grandsires  presents  us  with  a  sect 
of  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  members  to-day.  Some- 
times the  grievances  of  a  minority  are  real,  sometimes 
they  are  fancied.  Now  and  then  a  union  of  churches 
occurs  when  churches  of  similar  polity  agree;  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Associate  Synod  and  the  Associate  Reform 
Synod,  which  constitute  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  North  America. 

Although  church  polity  is  not  an  important  cause  of 
rupture  in  the  United  States,  it  is  a  very  important  fac- 
tor in  preventing  the  union  of  the  churches.  It  is  very 
difficult  in  many  cases  to  alter  the  administration  of  the 
Church;  offices  must  be  abolished,  church  societies  must 
be  changed  and  a  general  rearrangement  of  the  organ- 
ization must  be  made.  Perhaps  it  would  not  be  fair  to 
say  that  much  of  the  resistance  comes  from  those  hold- 
ing offices,  from  secretaries  of  societies,  and  men  em- 
ployed in  educational,  publication  or  other  activities  of 
the  Church.  But  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  great 
movement  for  church  cooperation  must  come  from  the 
intelligent  and  determined  laymen.  When  the  thirty 


70  THE  SECTS 

million  people  who  worship  in  the  numerous  sects  of  this 
country  determine  that  matters  of  church  government 
shall  not  separate  them,  it  will  not  be  long  before  polity 
will  disappear  as  an  argument  against  unity. 

Though  America  may  not  present  many  varieties  of 
church  polity  as  sources  of  sectarianism,  it  tan  boast  a 
number  of  remarkable  leaders  in  the  church  history  of 
the  last  century,  whose  efforts  have  built  up  sects  con- 
taining hundreds  of  thousands  of  worshippers.  In  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  William  Miller  per- 
suaded a  number  of  his  impressionable  countrymen  that 
the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand  and  the  numerous 
Adventist  sects  were  the  result.  Joseph  Smith,  a  native 
of  Vermont,  began  to  have  visions  concerning  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  when  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age; 
other  visions  followed  which  were  recorded  in  the  Book 
of  Mormon.  These  formed  a  basis  for  a  new  sect.  In 
more  recent  times,  Mrs.  Eddy  and  John  Alexander 
Dowie  succeeded  in  inducing  many  people  to  accept  their 
convictions.  Mrs.  Eddy  has  over  eighty-five  thousand 
followers.  These  last  two  sects  had  little  to  say  about 
the  second  coming  of  Christ.  They  based  their  claims 
upon  practical  achievements.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  start  a  great  denomination  among  the  churches  to- 
day upon  any  doctrine  concerning  the  second  coming  of 
Christ.  Doctrinal  interests  are  not  in  the  spirit  of  the 
times.  To-day  the  stress  of  life,  especially  in  our  large 
cities,  is  so  severe  that  many  people  break  down  and 
suffer  ill  health  primarily  from  nervous  disorders.  Any 
means  of  strengthening  their  hold  upon  life  is  eagerly 
sought.  Such  a  means  the  followers  of  Mrs.  Eddy  and 
Mr.  Dowie  profess  to  possess.  This  is  one  of  the  rea- 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS  71 

sons  why  the  Christian  Science  Church  has  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  members  in  the  cities  than  any  other  sect. 

By  far  the  most  important  cause  of  the  divisions  in 
the  sects  among  the  Protestant  churches  is  the  spirit 
of  protest.  This  gave  birth  to  Protestantism;  indeed,  it 
gave  birth  to  Christianity.  Protestantism,  whether  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  or  in  the  time  of  Luther,  or  in  the 
time  of  the  Puritans,  is  always  actuated  by  the  same 
spirit.  It  seeks  to  supplant  the  barrenness  and  the  in- 
efficiency of  the  religion  of  its  time  with  something 
better.  This  spirit  of  protest  may  express  itself  in 
several  ways;  very  frequently  it  seeks  to  find  the  better 
life  by  recurring  to  the  past.  It  is  a  characteristic  of 
human  nature  to  hark  back  to  the  Golden  Age  of  long 
ago.  This  is  a  trait  of  the  individual  memory,  which 
always  recalls  the  years  of  early  life  as  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  the  years ;  and  it  is  a  trait  of  humanity,  which 
loves  to  point  back  to  the  achievements  of  past  history. 
So  the  Church  often  looks  back  upon  the  achievements 
of  the  Apostolic  Age,  or  the  Reformation. 

In  the  growth  of  the  American  sects  there  are  many 
innovations  made  in  this  way.  Thus  the  Primitive  Bap- 
tists could  not  endure  the  worldly  spirit  which  incited 
man  to  establish  missions,  benevolent  societies  and  Sun- 
day-schools !  They  sought  the  simple  ways  of  the  earlier 
Church.  To-day  their  action  does  not  seem  reasonable. 
However,  such  an  action  is  sometimes  taken  after  mature 
deliberation,  after  a  sober  protest  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  worldly  interests  in  the  Church;  and  may,  oc- 
casionally, be  justified;  though  it  would  appear  to  be  the 
part  of  wisdom  and  Christianity  to  reform  the  Church 
from  within,  rather  than  to  add  another  sect  to  the 
already  too-long  list. 


72  THE  SECTS 

One  of  the  largest  sects  in  the  country,  the  General 
Council  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  of  North 
America,  arose  some  years  ago,  when  a  number  of  the 
members  of  the  Lutheran  Church  felt  that  they  were 
drifting  from  the  historical  moorings  of  their  church. 
They  started  a  movement  to  conserve  the  spirit  of  the 
earlier  Church.  They  felt  that  the  spirit  of  the  earlier 
Lutherans  had  been  changed  in  the  mutations  of  modern 
life,  and  to  bring  back  the  vigour  and  vitality  of  the 
earlier  Church  they  sought  to  return  to  its  doctrines  and 
customs. 

It  does  not  seem  to  matter  in  what  period  of  church 
history  a  protest  occurs.  It  always  can  find  a  more  re- 
mote period  as  an  ideal.  Menno  Simon  sought  to  lead  his 
fellows  to  the  simpler  Christianity  of  the-  early  Church. 
That  was  back  in  the  seventeenth  century.  From  this 
came  the  Mennonite  Church.  After  some  years,  one 
Ammon  sought  to  bring  the  Mennonite  Church  back  to 
the  simplicity  of  Simon's  teachings.  From  this  came 
the  Amish  Mennonite  Church.  Again,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  the  Pietists  sought  to  bring  the  vigour 
of  primitive  Christianity  into  a  rather  barren  Protestant 
Church.  From  this  movement  came  the  "  Dunkers  "  or 
the  "  German  Baptist  Brethren."  They  sought  to  resist 
modern  influences,  and  to  return  to  the  spirit  of  the 
past,  and  gave  rise  to  the  Old  Order  of  German  Baptist 
Brethren.  Much  the  same  history  explains  the  appear- 
ance of  the  "  Friends  "  and  the  "  Primitive  Friends." 
The  one  division  from  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  the 
Churches  of  Christ,  was  inspired  by  this  same  desire 
to  return  to  a  simpler  religious  life.  So,  too,  the  United 
Evangelical  Church,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  sought  to  go  back  to  the  doctrine,  spirit  and 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS  73 

purpose  of  the  earlier  life  of  its  parent  church.  The 
Free  Methodist  Church  of  North  America  arose  from  an 
agitation  against  the  "  worldly  "  Church  of  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  A  number  of  smaller  bodies, 
the  Plymouth  Brethren  and  the  River  Brethren,  not  to 
mention  many  others,  have  repeated  these  performances 
on  a  smaller  scale. 

Akin  to  this  spirit,  which  seeks  the  betterment  of  the 
Church  by  a  return  to  past  principles  and  practices,  is 
a  spirit  which  also  seeks  the  betterment  of  the  Church, 
but  does  so  regardless  of  the  past.  It  is  a  more  virile 
spirit.  It  usually  grows  out  of  the  enthusiasm  from  a 
great  revival ;  it  is  almost  inevitably  the  product  of  some 
Stirling  spiritual  movement. 

As  there  is  a  trait  in  human  nature  which  constantly 
looks  to  the  past  and  extols  those  halcyon  days,  so  there 
is.  a  trait,  in  a  great  number  of  men,  which  looks  to  the 
future  for  the  Best.  This  is  not  characteristic  of  re- 
ligious people  alone,  but  it  is  that  characteristic  of  all 
men  of  all  times  which  has  divided  them  into  conserva- 
tives and  radicals.  Every  government  of  every  country 
shows  these  two  forces-.  History  is  one  long  succession 
of  the  results  of  their  conflicts.  In  the  Church  the  radi- 
cal nature,  when  stirred  with  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
religious  spirit,  is  not  long  in  seeking  "  novas  res." 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  revival  started  by  White- 
field  put  new  life  into  the  churches.  In  some  cases,  an 
entire  sect  was  stimulated.  In  some  cases,  a  minority 
of  the  churches  of  a  sect  responded  to  the  revival  in- 
fluences. In  the  latter  "  Old  and  New  Light "  would 
shine  with  varying  degrees  of  lightness  or  dimness,  or,  a 
portion  of  the  sect,  unable  to  live  comfortably  with  its 
fellows,  would  break  off  and  form  a  new  sect.  In  such 


74  THE  SECTS 

a  way  the  Free  Baptists  came  into  being.  The  Great 
Revival,  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
after  the  depression  following  the  Revolutionary  War, 
occasioned  many  changes  in  the  churches.  The  Cum- 
berland Presbyterian  Church  could  not  endure  the  dearth 
of  spirituality  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  sought 
freedom  and  a  new  life  in  a  separate  denomination. 
This  same  general  movement  affected  a  number  of 
devout  and  capable  men  and  occasioned  the  up-springing 
of  a  number  of  churches  which  have  since  become  great 
and  strong.  The  Disciples  of  Christ,  the  Primitive 
Methodists,  the  Christian  Connection,  the  Evangelical 
Association,  are  among  the  churches  that  took  their 
origin  directly  or  indirectly  from  this  great  movement 
a  century  ago. 

In  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  rather 
sporadic  movement  has  appeared.  It,  too,  takes  the  form 
of  a  revival  of  religious  spirit.  It  is  rather  radical  and 
eccentric,  and  gives  rise  to  "  various  orders  of  Holiness 
Movements."  It  is  a  protest  against  the  worldliness  of 
the  Church  to-day,  and  an  emphasis  upon  unique  reli- 
gious experiences. 

Another  source  of  eruption  in  the  Church  is  differ- 
ences in  doctrine.  These  differences  are  not  developed 
in  the  United  States  as  much  as  is  often  imagined.  Of 
course  the  distinctly  American  contributions  are  those 
from  Miller,  Smith,  Eddy,  Channing,  Ballou,  Dowie  and 
a  few  others,  which  have  already  been  noted.  The  great 
doctrinal  forces,  which  grew  up  after  the  Reformation, 
have  come  over  to  America,  and  are  reflected  in  the 
creeds  of  many  of  the  churches.  No  great  American 
thinker  and  leader  has  formulated  a  body  of  distinctive 
doctrines,  which  have  given  rise  to  any  great  family  of 


THE  MAKING  OF  THE  SECTS 

denominations.  In  America,  the  sects  seem  rather  to 
take  their  origin  in  differences  of  religious  experience 
than  in  differences  of  thought.  The  Universalist  and 
the  Unitarian  churches  are  products  of  theoretical  move- 
ments. They  have  been  very  influential,  but  they  have 
not  spread  extensively. 

Theology  does  not  appear  to  be  a  very  important 
cause  of  sect  origin;  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  very  great 
deterrent  of  church  union.  With  the  spread  of  educa- 
tion, many  of  the  differences  in  doctrine  are  being 
levelled  down,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  hope  that  in 
time  devout  and  intelligent  men  may  be  able  to  agree 
upon  the  great  fundamentals  of  Christianity. 

Beneath  many  of  these  causes  of  separation  lies  a 
deeper  cause.  It  is  the  natural  difference  between  man 
and  man  in  the  thoughts  and  feelings  which  go  into  the 
shaping  of  the  religious  life  itself.  Such  differences  are 
inherent  in  human  nature.  It  is  impossible  to  ignore 
them.  As  each  individual  works  out  his  own  intellectual 
life,  influenced  by  others,  so,  too,  does  he  build  up  his 
religious  conceptions  and  seek  his  religious  develop- 
ment under  the  influence  of  others.  His  native  prompt- 
ings, plus  these  influences,  give  the  direction  of  his  re- 
ligious life.  No  two  human  beings  would  be  at  all  alike 
in  their  religion,  were  it  not  for  the  mutual  influence 
upon  each  other's  thoughts  and  feelings.  So,  different 
types  of  religious  nature  are  drawn  together  by  the 
assistance  rendered  each  other  in  developing  the  spiritual 
life.  These  natural  types  are  the  bases  of  several  great 
sect-types,  as  we  shall  see  later. 


VI 

CLASSES  OF  SECTS 

FROM  the  groups  of  causes  which  have  operated 
to  produce  the  sects,  it  may  be  argued  that  the 
sects  themselves  can  be  grouped  according  to 
their  various  characteristics.  For  the  influences  which 
give  rise  to  new  sects  do  not  cease  their  activity  with 
the  birth  of  a  sect,  but  continue  to  give  direction  to  the 
new  organization  for  generations.  Thus  a  religious 
body  which  originated  in  a  widespread  revival,  continues 
its  course  with  much  of  the  warmth  of  spirit  and  fer- 
vour of  expression  that  gave  it  birth;  another  denomi- 
nation, whose  beginning  is  traced  to  a  doctrinal  dis- 
tinction and  to  a  stand  upon  positive  convictions  in 
theoretical  matters,  often  continues  in  the  doctrinal  way ; 
while  a  third  sect  rises  from  the  peculiar  views  of  some 
one  man  who  stamps  his  personality  and  his  principles 
upon  his  followers,  and  these  run  through  the  life  of  his 
organization;  still  another  sect  will  arise  out  of  an 
issue  connected  with  some  feature  of  church  worship, 
and  the  life  of  the  sect  becomes  unique  in  some  ritual. 
So,  the  origin  of  a  sect  is  a  very  good  index  of  Its 
general  character,  and  we  may  well  attempt  a  classifica- 
tion of  the  sects,  based  primarily  upon  this  study  of 
their  origins. 

Of  course  a  large  number  of  sects  have  their  inception 
in  matters   wholly   external   to  their   religious  life;  of 

76 


CLASSES  OF  SECTS  77 

such  are  the  sects  formed  by  the  issues  of  the  Civil 
War,  the  divisions  due  to  controversies  over  church 
government,  or  over  the  administration  of  educational 
institutions,  etc.  Only  when  the  issue  turns  upon  mat- 
ters directly  connected  with  the  religious  life  of  the 
members,  can  the  origin  tell  anything  of  the  nature  of  a 
sect.  Those  sects,  considered  in  the  last  chapter,  which 
sprang  from  distinctly  religious  needs,  may  be  grouped 
according  to  the  traits  they  have  in  common.  In  such 
a  grouping  it  is  impossible  to  draw  broad  and  clear 
lines  between  the  bodies  classified,  for  one  church  may 
resemble  another  in  many  particulars,  but,  also,  resemble 
a  third  in  a  few  other  features.  For  this  reason,  we 
shall  use  the  origins  of  the  sects  only  as  a  general  index 
of  their  characters,  and  we  shall  consider  their  careers, 
their  inner  lives,  also,  in  making  an  estimate  of  their 
positions  in  the  classification. 

One  of  the  first  things  which  attract  the  attention  of 
the  sociologist  in  a  study  of  the  people  of  America,  is 
the  distinctive  trait  which  each  nationality  contributes 
to  the  complexion  of  the  nation.  Such  traits  arise  in 
many  ways;  they  may  be  due  to  genuine  differences  in 
the  national  stocks,  or  they  may  be  due  to  peculiarities 
incident  to  social  or  natural  environments.  If  they  are 
due  to  environments  which  have  operated  upon  the  peo- 
ple for  only  a  few  generations,  they  will  probably  dis- 
appear. If  they  go  deeper  and  run  back  to  fundamental 
characteristics,  they  last  for  a  very  long  time.  These 
differences  show  themselves  in  a  number  of  ways — in 
the  kind  of  work  which  these  people  undertake  when 
they  come  to  a  new  country,  in  their  social  customs  and 
forms  of  amusement,  their  personal  morals,  and  espe- 
cially in  their  religion,  which  is  one  of  the  most  con- 


78  THE  SECTS 

servative  factors  in  life.  The  Reformation  took  hold 
upon  the  peoples  of  northern  Europe;  it  was  congenial 
to  them.  The  soil  of  their  nature  yielded  fruit  a  hun- 
dredfold; but  in  the  south  of  Europe  the  Reformation 
could  not  gain  headway,  and  the  principles  of  Protestan- 
tism never  took  root.  Some  reasons  for  this  we  have 
seen  in  a  former  chapter;  certain  minor  differences  are 
very  apparent  to  the  psychologist  in  the  art,  the  literature, 
the  music  and  the  habits  of  the  people  of  northern  and 
southern  Europe.  These  fundamental  differences  do  not 
appear  so  clearly  as  you  pass  from  nation  to  nation,  as 
they  do  when  you  pass  from  the  brachycephalic  heads 
of  the  south  to  the  dolichocephalic  heads  of  the  north. 
That  the  shape  of  the  head  shapes  the  religion  no  one 
can  believe,  but  that  the  shape  of  the  head  goes  with  a 
number  of  other  traits,  among  them  religious  traits,  may 
very  well  be  possible.  A  genuine  difference  exists  be- 
tween the  people  in  the  north  and  the  people  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  it  appears  in  their  religion.  In  America 
it  is  natural  to  expect  a  recurrence  of  this  phenomenon, 
and  we  may  well  look  for  some  characteristic  which 
marks  the  sturdy  stock  which  made  the  Reformation. 

A  number  of  denominations  in  this  country  trace 
their  history  back  to  the  people  immediately  affected  by 
Luther's  influence.  Their  lineage  is  not  only  doctrinal 
but  human.  For  the  very  people  who  responded  to 
Luther  were  the  ancestors  of  many  who  stoutly  defend 
his  name  to-day.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  the  greatest 
Protestant  church  in  the  world.  The  Lutheran  Church 
in  America  would  be  one  of  the  largest,  if  it  were 
not  divided  into  twenty-four  divisions.  Nevertheless, 
through  these  divisions  one  may  see  certain  character- 
istics in  common.  The  first  is  that  all  of  these  separate 


CLASSES  OF  SECTS  79 

bodies  look  back  to  the  Augsburg  Confession  as  the 
constitution  of  their  faith.  Some  of  them  accept  in 
addition  Luther's  catechism,  or  the  Smalkald  Articles; 
or  perhaps  also  the  Apostolic,  the  Nicene  or  the  Athana- 
sian  creeds.  Their  central  doctrine  is  salvation  through 
faith  in  Christ,  and  their  theology  turns  upon  that. 
They  are  a  people  who  retain  the  doctrinal  tenets  of  the 
past,  but  have  also  a  religious  experience  which  runs 
parallel  with  their  doctrines.  They  are  neither  as  doc- 
trinal as  the  Presbyterian,  nor  as  insistent  upon  the 
spiritual  experience  as  the  Methodist;  but  doctrine  and 
devotion  of  a  characteristic  kind  run  through  them  all, 
despite  national  differences  (see  page  195). 

Nearly  three  hundred  thousand  members  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  the  United  States,  formerly  the  German 
Reformed  Church,  also  trace  their  religion  back  to  the  in- 
spiration of  the  Reformation.  Their  constitution,  if  we 
may  so  call  the  doctrinal  expression  of  the  church,  is 
in  the  Heidelberg  catechism.  This  statement  of  faith, 
like  many  others  of  the  period  of  its  making,  reflects 
the  same  general  principles  that  are  contained  in  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  The  religious  life  of  these  fol- 
lowers of  Luther  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  Lutherans. 
Indeed,  with  the  religious  life  centring  around  the  same 
ideas  and  taking  its  colour  from  the  same  racial  tem- 
perament, it  is  hard  to  see  why  these  two  bodies  should 
remain  distinct. 

The  German  Evangelical  Synod,  which  also  has  nearly 
three  hundred  thousand  members,  retains  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  and  the  Heidelberg  catechism,  both  as 
the  religious  expressions  of  its  life.  It  would  seem  pos- 
sible, then,  that  all  these  German  descendants  of  the 
Great  Reform  could  have  the  same  doctrinal  basis  for 


8o  THE  SECTS 

their  faith.  The  minor  issues  which  a  theologian  might 
take  exception  to  mean  nothing  to  the  average  layman. 
The  general  tenets  of  a  belief  are  all  that  influence  the 
average  worshipper.  Here  the  general  tenets  are  the 
same.  Not  only  so,  but  the  spiritual  experience  which 
runs  along  with  these  general  convictions,  takes  much 
the  same  form  in  these  people  whose  thought  and  an- 
cestry run  back  to  one  origin. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  group  of  sects  which  might 
well  be  called  a  type.  Of  course  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions to  the  average,  and  minor  diversities  certainly 
appear  in  the  Danish,  the  Finnish,  or  the  Norwegian 
branches.  One  sect  reflects  a  principle  we  find  in  many 
places.  Among  the  Norwegian  Lutherans  a  sect,  under 
Hauge,  sprang  up  in  protest  against  the  barrenness  of 
the  spiritual  life;  it  lays  more  emphasis  upon  spirituality, 
and  none  upon  creed.  With  the  rank  and  file  of  these 
millions  of  worshippers,  the  general  traits  of  their  stock, 
in  temperament,  in  belief  and  in  worship,  remain  the 
same. 

Among  other  national  strains  in  the  great  composi- 
tion of  the  American  people,  preference  for  certain 
forms  of  the  Christian  religion  may  also  be  traced. 
The  Scotch-Irish  stock,  with  its  stalwart  qualities;  the 
Irish,  so  different  in  temperament;  the  English  and  the 
Dutch;  not  to  mention  a  number  of  others,  have  given 
their  trend  to  the  sect-making.  Still,  these  people  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  the  Teuton,  in  their  influence 
upon  the  church  history  of  America.  For  they  have 
been  more  susceptible  to  the  influences  which  drew  them 
into  sects  not  bound  by  characteristics  of  nationalities. 

A  very  distinct  group  of  race-sects  is  that  comprised 
of  negroes.  Here  there  are  very  marked  race  char- 


CLASSES  OF  SECTS  81 

acteristics,  for  the  African  race  is  well  removed.  Its 
temperament,  its  intellectual  life,  its  emotional  nature, 
its  many  primitive  traits,  all  mark  it  off  from  the  Cau- 
casian. Matters  of  doctrine  play  very  little  part  in  the 
religion  of  the  negro,  except  as  they  stir  his  imagina- 
tion. The  emotional  nature  is  the  actuating  factor  of 
his  religion.  Negro  Unitarians  are  almost  impossible. 
Indeed,  all  of  those  sects  that  have  laid  great  emphasis 
upon  the  intellectual  factors  in  religion,  have  made  little 
appeal  to  the  negro.  The  Presbyterian  Church  was 
not  so  much  weaker  than  the  Methodist  and  the  Baptist 
before  the  war,  but  the  Presbyterian  Church,  with  its 
love  of  doctrine,  has  succeeded  in  sending  comparatively 
few  of  the  negroes  to  its  altars,  while  the  Baptists, 
with  their  insistence  upon  a  regenerated  heart  rather 
than  a  regenerated  mind,  have  won  many  of  the  negroes. 
Indeed,  61  per  cent,  of  membership  of  all  the  coloured 
organizations  is  in  the  Baptist  Church,  13  per  cent,  in 
the  Methodist,  and  one-eighth  of  I  per  cent,  in  the  Pres- 
byterian. Whatever  may  be  said  of  difference  in  efforts 
on  the  part  of  these  churches  to  reach  the  negro,  what- 
ever discount  may  be  made  for  their  differences  in  size, 
it  still  remains  to  be  explained  why  so  few  coloured 
people  are  in  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  so  many  in 
the  Baptist  and  the  Methodist.  Surely,  part  of  the  ex- 
planation is  in  the  fact  that  these  two  churches  more 
nearly  satisfy  the  negro's  religious  needs.  There  are 
greater  differences  between  the  negro  churches  and  the 
white  churches  than  there  are  between  the  different  sects 
in  the  negro  church.  With  the  education  and  cultivation 
of  the  negro,  the  excesses  which  used  to  characterize 
his  worship  will  disappear;  but  his  real  religious  needs 
will  remain  the  same,  in  great  measure.  He  should  not 


82  THE  SECTS 

be  forced  to  fashion  his  church  life  after  that  of  the 
white  man,  but  should  be  encouraged  to  establish  one 
great  church  having  sufficient  variety  of  forms  of  wor- 
ship to  satisfy  him,  and  to  develop  along  lines  most  con- 
genial to  his  nature. 

In  the  study  of  the  origins  of  the  sects,  we  saw  that 
the  great  religious  revival  which  swept  over  the  country, 
gave  rise  to  divisions  in  the  old  churches  and  to  the 
birth  of  new  churches.  Here,  then,  we  have  an  appeal 
to  the  spiritual  nature  as  the  supreme  incentive  for 
forming  a  church.  The  response  to  this  appeal  came 
from  those  people  who  found  the  experience  of  religion 
a  supreme  factor  in  their  lives.  Theology  had  little  to 
do  with  it.  Doctrine  was  ignored ;  only  the  great  central 
principles  of  Christianity  were  considered.  In  the  re- 
ligious awakening  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  people  who  responded  gave  little  thought 
to  the  theoretical  differences  of  the  different  churches; 
they  were  absorbed  in  the  great  ethical  and  spiritual 
issues  of  the  moment.  We  saw  that  the  Disciples  of 
Christ,  the  Evangelical  Association,  the  "  Christians," 
and  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  and  we 
might  add  the  "  Winebrennerian,"  originated  in  this 
movement.  Now,  if  we  study  the  after-careers  of  these 
churches,  we  shall  find  that  they  have  very  much  in  com- 
mon. The  Disciples  take  this  position :  "  While  agree- 
ing with  all  the  Evangelical  churches  in  the  necessity  of 
faith  and  repentance,  we  differ  in  this:  we  submit  no 
other  tests  but  faith  and  repentance  in  admitting  per- 
sons to  baptism  and  church  membership.  We  present  to 
them  no  articles  of  faith  other  than  the  one  article  con- 
cerning the  divinity  and  Christhood  of  Jesus.  .  .  . 
They  are  wedded  to  Christ  and  not  to  a  set  of  doctrines 


CLASSES  OF  SECTS  83 

or  to  a  party."  *  This  church  insists  only  upon  a  re- 
ligious experience  which  makes  for  Christian  living;  it 
holds  forth  no  creeds;  it  seeks  the  unity  of  all  churches. 
The  Evangelical  Association  has  a  like  spirit :  "  There  is 
nothing  radical  in  our  creed,  we  hold  a  common  faith 
of  Orthodox  Christians."  f  In  addition  to  the  Articles  of 
Faith  of  the  Methodist  Church,  which  constitute  in  gen- 
eral the  belief  of  the  Church,  the  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion holds  to  an  adoption  of  Christian  perfection. 
"  Christian  perfection  is  defined  as  a  state  of  grace,  in 
which  we  are  so  firmly  rooted  in  God  that  we  have  in- 
stant victory  over  every  temptation  the  moment  it 
presents  itself,  without  yielding  in  any  degree;  in  which 
our  rest,  peace  and  joy  in  God  are  not  interrupted  by 
the  vicissitudes  of  life.  .  .  .  Yet  no  perfection  of  ex- 
perience is  attainable  that  does  not  admit  of  higher  and 
deeper  and  fuller  participation  in  the  infinite  fulness  of 
divine  peace,  life  and  power,  but  a  constant  expansion 
of  spiritual  capacity  and  enlargement  of  faith."  The 
"Christians,"  or  Christian  Connection,  also  hold  the 
Bible  is  the  only  source  of  their  belief,  and  they  have 
no  need  for  a  creed.  Christian  character  i$  the  only 
test  of  church  fellowship.  They,  too,  welcome  church 
unity  and  the  fellowship  of  all  who  share  the  Christian 
religion.  The  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  com- 
ing from  a  theological  stock,  carried  as  much  of  the 
Westminster  faith  with  them  as  they  could;  some  of  it 
they  could  not  carry.  Their  hearts  had  been  stirred 
by  a  great  experience,  and  the  old  doctrines  of  Calvin- 
istic  predestination  did  not  fit  their  experience.  So  we 

*  B.  B.  Tyler :  "  A  History  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ,"  p.  122. 
f  S.  O.  Sprang :  "  A  History  of  the  Evangelical  Association," 
p.  420,  Vol.  XII  in  the  American  Church  History  Series. 


84  THE  SECTS 

find  this  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  tending  to 
hold  to  the  Arminian  doctrine  of  free  will.  However,  this 
product  of  the  great  awakening  in  the  religion  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  also  lays  very  little  emphasis  upon  doc- 
trine. It  does  not  require  subscription  to  the  confession 
of  faith  by  those  who  wish  to  join  the  church.  These 
traits,  which  grew  up  as  a  result  of  the  revival,  became 
more  common  in  the  parent  Presbyterian  body  as  time 
went  on,  so  that  a  reunion  between  the  two  was  not 
impossible.  The  last  church  which  we  shall  consider 
that  grew  out  of  this  movement,  is  the  Winebrennerian. 
Here,  too,  no  written  creed  is  required.  The  doctrine, 
so  far  as  there  is  any  doctrine,  is  Arminian  rather  than 
Calvinistic.  The  great  emphasis  is  upon  regeneration 
of  heart  and  genuine  practical  piety. 

In  this  group  of  churches  we  have  a  set  of  common 
characteristics.  They  grew  out  of  a  movement  which 
demanded  a  religious  experience  rather  than  a  doc- 
trinal belief  or  a  subscription  to  one  form  of  worship 
and  ritual.  They  have  continued  to  hold  to  these  prin- 
ciples. They  constitute  a  very  large  portion  of  the 
Christian  churches  in  the  United  States.  They  have  so 
much  in  common,  and  are  so  willing  to  fraternize  with 
all  who  have  a  similar  "  witness  of  the  Spirit,"  that  it 
seems  improbable  that  they  should  long  remain  separated 
by  the  less  important  traits  of  church  polity. 

Another  group  of  sects  might  also  be  called  experi- 
ential. In  these  churches  the  emphasis  is  upon  the 
spiritual  life.  If  we  were  to  draw  a  sharp  distinction,  we 
should  say  that  it  is  a  feeling  element  in  religion,  rather 
than  an  intellectual  element,  which  is  the  more  empha- 
sized among  these  sects.  That  feeling  element  is  very 
different  in  the  Quaker  and  the  Methodist.  One  is  at  one 


CLASSES  OF  SECTS  85 

end  of  the  keyboard  and  the  other  at  the  opposite  ex- 
treme. To  pass  from  the  quiet,  subtle  promptings  of 
the  Spirit  in  the  demure  Quaker  to  the  racking,  ex- 
plosive demonstrations  of  the  camp  meeting,  is  to  pass 
down  the  gamut  of  religious  feeling.  It  is  what  one 
feels  within  that  stirs  him  to  express  himself;  his  ex- 
pression is  directed  by  that  stirring.  Somewhere  on 
that  gamut,  we  should  have  to  find  a  place  for  the  Bap- 
tist, who  knows  when  he  is  regenerated ;  for  the  member 
of  the  Salvation  Army,  who  knows  when  he  is  con- 
verted ;  for  the  "  Holiness  "  Christian,  who  knows  when 
he  has  been  sanctified,  or  perfected,  and  for  many 
others.  Now,  surely,  the  historical  differences  in  the 
origins  of  these  sects  give  some  indication  of  the  traits 
which  have  always  characterized  them;  but  we  should 
be  led  astray  if  we  looked  only  to  the  origins. 

Another  great  group  with  a  very  distinctive  char- 
acteristic we  might  entitle  the  "Doctrinal  Group."  In 
these  churches  doctrines  have  played  a  preeminent  part. 
Among  them  the  Presbyterian  holds  high  rank.  Origi- 
nating as  it  did  in  the  genius  of  Calvin,  it  has  strongly 
adhered  to  that  genius.  It  is  the  genius  of  logic.  Calvin's 
"  Institutions  "  were  all  written  before  he  reached  the 
age  when  Jesus  began  His  public  ministry.  They  were 
not  based  upon  a  life  of  religious  experience ;  they  were 
based  upon  close-knit  logical  reasoning.  Calvin  was  a 
man  with  very  little  feeling.  He  preached  a  rigid  doc- 
trine and  taught  a  rigid  ethical  system.  The  fervour 
of  the  Methodists  had  no  part  in  his  system.  Taking 
an  impression  from  the  strong  logical  intellect  of  John 
Calvin,  it  always  has  put  theoretical  doctrine  into  its 
foreground.  It  has  laid  a  stress  upon  doctrinal  sound- 
ness as  an  element  of  wholesome  church  life,  which 


86  THE  SECTS 

defends  it  from  both  Lutheran  and  Anglican  Protestant- 
ism. Its  weaker  side,  in  this  respect,  has  been  an  over- 
confidence  in  the  adequacy  of  human  logic,  to  bring 
the  truth  of  the  Scriptures  into  a  systematic  form,  and 
to  present  a  doctrinal  scheme  which  the  Bible  does  not 
furnish.  Closely  akin  to  the  spirit  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  was  the  spirit  of  the  Congregational  churches 
for  many  generations.  This  was  preeminently  the 
church  of  New  England,  where  there  arose  a  number  of 
great  thinkers,  who  have  given  us  a  New  England 
theology.  In  these  later  years  the  Congregational 
churches  have  worked  away  from  their  doctrinal  bias, 
but  are  still  among  the  leaders  in  the  religious  thought 
of  to-day.  So  similar  were  the  Congregational  and 
Presbyterian  churches  in  their  intellectual  life  a  cen- 
tury ago,  that  their  ministers  passed  from  the  pulpits  of 
one  sect  to  the  other  freely.  It  was  felt  that  these  two 
denominations  were  very  close  together.  From  the  Con- 
gregational the  Unitarians  separated  upon  a  theoretical 
question,  whose  roots  run  back  many  years  in  colonial 
history.  The  bitterness  engendered  by  this  has  made 
the  Congregational  and  the  Unitarian  churches  appear 
to  be  very  different  in  character.  As  time  went  on,  the 
body  which  separated  did  the  natural  thing,  insisted 
upon  a  certain  form  of  intellectual  statement  of  faith, 
which  gave  the  sect  an  ultra-intellectualistic  cast.  The 
Universalist  Church,  another  New  England  product,  also 
had  its  inception  in  a  revolt  against  Congregational 
theology.  It,  too,  has  claimed  a  disdain  for  the  intrica- 
cies and  deceptions  of  theology,  but  has,  nevertheless, 
laid  such  emphasis  upon  its  tenets  that  it  has  also  taken 
much  the  same  cast  as  the  Unitarian. 

Such  churches  laying  the  primary  emphasis  upon  the 


CLASSES  OF  SECTS  87 

forms  of  thought,  whether  in  creed  or  not,  that  express 
the  religious  life,  and  seeking  to  emphasize  with  this 
their  ethical  standards,  constitute  a  distinctive  type  of 
sects. 

Still  another  type  of  denominations  appears  in  those 
churches  which  turn  to  the  church  service,  to  the  ritual 
as  the  dominant  factor  in  their  Christianity.  The 
Catholic  Church  emphasized  the  importance  of  m  the 
eucharist  to  such  an  extent  that  the  mass  became  the 
most  important  thing  in  the  church  life.  By  means  of 
the  body  and  blood  of  the  Saviour,  mystically  imparted 
to  the  believer,  salvation  was  attained.  Should  it  be 
impossible  to  administer  the  Sacraments  of  the  Church, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  Christianity.  These 
sacraments  are  the  cornerstone  of  the  Church.  Under 
such  a  dispensation,  one  must  attend  the  church  service 
and  receive  from  its  ritual  the  means  of  maintaining  his 
religious  life.  The  Church,  too,  must  hear  his  con- 
fessions, and  through  the  Church  must  he  receive  his 
forgiveness.  The  Catholic  Church  is  not  a  help  to  the 
religious  life.  It  is  an  indispensable  means  to  its  fol- 
lowers. A  very  different  class  of  men  are  attracted 
by  its  service  from  those  who  feel  within  themselves  the 
ability  to  find  their  God,  to  know  Him,  to  receive  the 
assurance  of  His  presence  and  His  existence,  inde- 
pendent of  any  institutes,  and  who  use  the  Church  as  an 
auxiliary,  not  as  an  indispensable  means  to  the  religious 
life. 

That  group  of  sects,  founded  by  different  persons  in 
America,  such  as  Miller,  Smith,  Dowie,  Eddy  or  Crowdy, 
might  well  constitute  another  type  of  sects.  They  all 
take  their  origin  from  some  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. They  over-emphasize  some  feature  of  Chris- 


88  THE  SECTS 

tianity;  or  they  graft  on  some  misinterpretation  of  the 
Scriptures  and  develop  it  according  to  their  humour. 
Though  these  sects  originated  under  the  inspiration  of 
some  dominating  personality,  the  things  for  which  they 
stand  are  so  dissimilar  that  it  is  necessary  in  drawing  the 
line  around  them  to  draw  it  very  loosely.  They  may  be 
classed  from  the  point  of  view  of  psychology  in  rather  a 
different  way  from  that  in  which  their  historical  origin 
would  class  them. 

These  types  of  sects  do  not  include  all  of  the  indi- 
vidual churches  in  the  United  States.  There  may  be  a 
church  here  and  there  which  cannot  find  a  place  in  one 
of  these  types.  By  far  the  great  majority  of  them,  how- 
ever, may  easily  be  placed  in  some  one  of  the  above 
classes.  Such  a  sect  as  the  Swedenborgian,  for  example, 
does  not  originate  in  America,  and  could  not  be  grouped 
as  an  American  sect  arising  from  the  inspiration  of  an 
American  leader ;  but  it  is  in  many  particulars  similar  to 
those  sects  which  have  so  arisen,  and  have  taken  their 
stand  upon  the  professed  revelations  of  their  leaders. 


VII 
THE  NATURAL  SECTS 

TWO  sets  of  influences  give  rise  to  the  sects;  ex- 
ternal or  circumstantial,  and  internal  or  natural. 
The  latter  alone  is  important,  as  the  adventitious 
influences  of  the  social  order  do  not  produce  lasting 
effects,  and  sects  formed  by  them  may  readily  re-form 
into  bodies  which  directly  influence  their  religious  prefer- 
ences. The  native  disposition  to  worship,  believe  and 
act  in  certain  ways  is  fundamental.  To  find  what  these 
fundamental  traits  are,  in  the  religious  nature,  is  one 
of  the  tasks  the  psychologist  has  undertaken.  It  is  a 
large  and  difficult  problem,  one  which  invites  pitfalls. 
At  present  only  large  trends  may  be  pointed  out.  How- 
ever, these  trends  are  of  great  significance,  and  assist 
materially  in  acquiring  a  true  understanding  of  the  nature 
of  the  divisions  which  run  through  the  American  Church. 
Dr.  Jean  du  Buy  has  made  a  very  interesting  com- 
parative study  in  the  psychology  of  four  different  types 
of  Protestants.*  In  it  he  shows  some  of  the  typical 
traits  of  the  Presbyterian,  the  Baptist,  the  Methodist 
and  the  Unitarian.  This  he  does  by  pointing  out  the 
characteristics  of  the  founders  of  these  sects,  showing 
how  these  characteristics  continue  in  the  life  of  the  or- 
ganizations. 

Dr.  du  Buy  finds  that  the  spirit  of  Calvin  has  been 

*  Amer.  Jour,  of  Relig.,  Psychol.  and  Educ.,  3,  pp.  165-209. 

89 


90  THE  SECTS 

perpetuated  in  the  Calvinistic  churches.  By  the  typical 
Calvinist  he  does  not  mean  the  average  member  of  a 
present-day  Presbyterian  Church,  but  he  means  rather 
the  characteristics  of  the  laymen  who  were  attracted 
to  the  movement  when  it  was  young.  These  main  char- 
acteristics have  been  repeated  in  every  genuine  follower 
ever  since.  "  The  typical  Calvinist  is  intellectual.  Cal- 
vin himself  was  distinguished  by  an  uncommonly  clear 
and  powerful  intellect.  The  typical  Calvinist  dwelt  on 
<^the  intellectual  side  of  religion.  Calvinistic  preaching 
)was  didactic,  and  was  an  appeal  to  the  intellect  rather 
[than  to  feeling.  The  typical  Calvinist  is  logical.  Calvin's 
own  mind  was  exceedingly  clear  and  logical.  He  early 
formed  a  habit  of  arranging  his  thoughts  logically,  and 
of  thus  reducing  them  to  order.  The  typical  Calvinist 
is  distinguished  by  his  logical  precision,  as  well  as  his 
keen  analysis  and  sharp  argumentation.  The  typical  Cal- 
vinist is  a  systematizer  of  thought.  Calvin  himself  had 
a  genius  for  organizing  thought.  The  typical  Calvinist 
endeavours  to  erect  a  theological  system  by  means  of 
logical  inference.  His  creed  surpasses  those  of  all  other 
Protestants  in  systematical  elaborateness.  He  is  char- 
acterized by  an  over-confidence  in  the  adequacy  of  logic 
to  bring  theological  thought  into  a  system.  The  typical 
Calvinist  is  an  organizer  by  nature.  Calvin  himself 
had  a  genius  for  organizing.  The  typical  Calvinist  is  a 
theologian.  Calvin's  main  interest  was  in  theology  and 
in  doctrinal  soundness.  The  typical  Calvinist  puts  theo- 
logical doctrine  into  the  foreground.  He  is  distinguished 
by  his  fine-spun  theological  definitions.  His  interest  in 
dogmatical  theology  is  intense.  He  is  more  interested 
in  doctrinal  questions  than  all  other  Protestants.  The 
typical  Calvinist  is  dogmatic.  Calvin  himself  was 


THE  NATURAL  SECTS 

dogmatic.  .  .  .  The  typical  Calvinist  is  unemotional' 
Calvin  himself  was  greatly  lacking  in  emotion.  He  be- 
came early  distinguished  by  a  certain  strictness  and 
severity  of  character.  .  .  .  Calvinism  has  set  up  a 
high  standard  of  intelligence  both  for  its  ministers  and 
its  laity.  It  stands  for  an  educated  ministry." 

His  study  of  the  "  Typical  Methodist "  brings  out 
some  sharp  contracts  with  the  "  Typical  Calvinist." 
"  The  religion  of  the  Methodist  is  a  religion  based  upon 
personal  experience,  on  the  experience  of  the  forgive- 
ness of  our  sins,  on  a  sense  of  pardon  of  all  past  sins. 
Inseparably  connected  with  this  sense  of  pardon,  is  the 
new  trust  in  God  on  the  part  of  the  convert.  The 
typical  Methodist  insists  that  conversion  be  always  pre- 
ceded by  an  overwhelming  sense  of  personal  guilt,  by 
what  is  called  conviction  of  sin,  and  that  it  be  followed 
by  a  joyful  assurance  of  reconciliation  with  God.  .  .  . 
A  typical  Methodist  preacher  demanded  of  a  man's  con- 
version that  it  be  a  conscious  experience,  usually  in- 
volving a  conscious  submission  to  God.  .  .  .  Methodist 
revival  preachers  were  even  loath  to  recognize  anyone 
as  truly  converted  who  had  not  experienced  a  large 
measure  of  emotional  excitement.  .  .  .  The  typical 
Methodist  is  neither  dogmatic  nor  controversial.  There 
have  never  been  any  radical  divergencies  of  doctrine 
among  American  Methodists.  True  Methodist  preachers 
have  not  cared  for  theological  controversies,  because 
they  were  completely  absorbed  in  the  work  of  the  con- 
version and  saving  of  souls.  The  typical  Methodist  is 
distinguished  by  his  zeal  and  activity,  he  is  indefatigable. 
.  .  .  The  typical  Methodist  is  distinguished  by  a  cer- 
tain directness  and  aggressiveness.  The  typical  Metho- 
dist is  emotional.  Early  Methodism  was  a  great  outburst 


92  THE  SECTS 

of  religious  feeling.  Typical  Methodist  preaching  is  highly 
emotional.  Wesley's  preaching  frequently  excited  ungov- 
ernable emotion  in  the  hearts  of  many  of  his  hearers. 
.  .  .  The  typical  Methodist  is  distinguished  by  his 
powerful  fervency  and  religious  enthusiasm.  He  is 
characterized  by  a  fervour  of  address  in  preaching.  .  .  . 
The  genuine  Methodist  is  decidedly  a  man  of  prayers. 
.  .  .  He  is  an  enthusiastic  singer  of  hymns.  .  .  . 
The  early  converts  to  Methodism  were  mainly  members 
of  the  lower  classes.  They  were  chiefly  poor,  uneducated 
and  even  rude  people.  Indeed,  Wesley  himself  intended 
his  work  mainly  for  the  benefit  of  the  lower  classes  in 
society.  .  .  .  The  typical  Methodist  is  emotional. 
Methodism  naturally  appeals  to  people  of  an  emotional 
temperament.  Thus  an  emotional  woman  will  find  in  the 
fervency  of  Methodist  preaching  a  response  to  the  long- 
ings of  her  own  nature.  There  surely  is  such  a  thing  as 
a  Methodist  type  of  temperament.  There  is  no  mis- 
taking a  typical  Methodist  for  a  Calvinist  or  a  Uni- 
tarian." 

The  analysis  of  the  Baptist  is  equally  interesting, 
though  it  does  not  bring  out  psychological  differences 
so  clearly.  "  The  most  fundamental  principle  of  the 
Baptists  is  their  demand  for  an  exclusively  regenerate 
church  membership.  The  typical  Baptist  draws  a  sharp 
line  of  distinction  between  the  consciously  regenerate  and 
those  who  make  no  claim  to  a  regenerative  change.  He 
believes  in  the  necessity  of  regeneration,  and  demands 
that  regeneration  should  precede  church  membership. 
He  insists  that  a  church  must  be  composed  exclusively 
of  regenerate  persons,  of  individuals  who  are  assured 
of  their  conversion.  He  rejects  infant  baptism  largely 
because  it  is  incompatible  with  a  regenerate  church  mem- 


THE  NATURAL  SECTS  93 

bership.  .  .  .  The  typical  Baptist  may  be  a  Calvinist  or 
an  Arminian  in  his  theology.  The  Regular  Baptists  of 
America  are  Calvinists,  but  the  Freewill  Baptists  of 
America  are  Arminian.  A  number  of  speculative  think- 
ers among  the  Baptists  have  been  Socinians  and  Anti- 
Trinitarians.  The  Regular  Baptists  of  America  have  no 
creed  to-day  to  which  all  of  them  have  to  subscribe. 
Submission  to  a  creed  is  not  a  condition  of  membership 
in  Baptist  churches.  The  Bible  is  preeminently  their 
creed.  Neither  Calvinistic  doctrine  nor  any  other  theo- 
logical view  is  one  of  the  essential  characteristics  of  the 
Baptists.  The  typical  Baptist  is  an  advocate  of  abso- 
lute liberty  of  conscience.  He  believes  that  religion  is 
a  personal  concern,  a  matter  between  the  individual  man 
and  God.  .  .  .  The  typical  Baptist  is  distinguished  by 
a  peculiar  literalness  in  his  interpretation  of  the  New 
Testament.  Like  the  Calvinist,  he  maintains  the  doc- 
trine of  the  supremacy  and  the  sufficiency  of  the  Bible 
as  the  only  norm  of  faith  and  practice.  .  .  .  The  Bap- 
tists practise  what  they  call  'believers'  baptism,'  that  is, 
the  baptism  of  adult  believers.  Repentance,  or  change  of 
heart,  and  faith  are  the  conditions  upon  which  alone 
they  baptize  people.  Those  who  profess  repentance  and 
faith  are  the  only  proper  subjects  of  baptism,  accord- 
ing to  them.  .  .  .  Infants  are  not  the  proper  subjects 
of  baptism  because  they  cannot  experience  the  '  new 
birth ' ;  the  spirit  of  regeneration  belongs  to  adult 
people." 

The  Unitarian  stands  out  in  rather  sharp  relief  against 
these  other  types.     "  Described  in  one  word,  Unitarian-  | 
ism  is  an  appeal  to  reason  and  conscience.     The  typical  i 
Unitarian  asserts  the  claim  of  reason  in  religion.     He 
appeals  to  reason  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible.    He 


94  THE  SECTS 

insists  that  no  religious  doctrine  which  is  contrary  to 
reason  should  be  accepted.  He  contends  for  the  free- 
dom of  private  criticism  and  of  private  interpretation, 
and  is  distinguished  by  independence  of  thought  and  by 
a  tendency  toward  rationalism.  The  typical  Unitarian 
is  a  person  who  wants  to  be  unpledged  to  any  prescribed 
theological  doctrine.  He  does  not  recognize  any  creed, 
not  even  the  simplest  one,  as  binding  him.  .  .  .  Has 
a  strong  dislike  of  dogma  as  well  as  of  controversy. 
.  .  .  Does  not  recognize  the  authority  of  any  church 
discipline  over  him.  .  .  .  The  typical  Unitarian  is  un- 
emotional. Non-Unitarians  have  often  made  the  charge 
of  lack  of  emotion  against  him.  They  speak  of  his  cold 
intellectualism.  They  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  Unitarian  is  wholly  intellectual,  with- 
out any  demonstration ;  almost  entirely  of  the  head,  very 
little  of  the  heart.  They  regard  him  as  highly  respect- 
able, but  frigid  in  his  piety.  .  .  .  Seems  to  be  lacking 
in  the  religious  life.  Unitarianism  appeals  most  strongly 
to  people  of  culture.  It  finds  its  adherents  largely  in 
the  cultivated  class.  The  typical  Unitarian  is  an  edu- 
cated and  cultivated  man  who  has  some  wealth  and 
having  a  good  social  position.  .  .  .  Unitarianism  has 
never  been  a  religion  for  the  masses,  the  latter  require  a 
religion  which  is  more  emotional,  and  which  empha- 
sizes the  inward  moral  struggle  against  temptation  and 
sin." 

The  most  interesting  thing  from  the  point  of  view  of 
psychology,  in  this  study,  is  the  distinction  which  appears 
between  the  Presbyterian  and  Unitarian  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  Baptist  and  the  Methodist  on  the  other.  This 
would  seem  to  be  due  to  native  traits.  The  former, 
though  wide  apart  theologically,  are  near  together  psy- 


THE  NATURAL  SECTS  95 

chologically.  Both  Presbyterian  and  Unitarian  are  of  the 
intellectual  type  as  distinguished  from  the  Baptist  and 
Methodist,  who  lay  more  emphasis  upon  the  experiential 
factors  in  religion.  With  the  former  two  sects,  the 
interest  revolves  around  what  is  thought;  with  the  lat- 
ter two,  their  interest  centres  upon  what  is  felt,  experi- 
enced. 

Professor  Griddings  makes  a  more  elaborate  study  of 
the  sects,  and  endeavours  to  classify  all  of  them  under 
five  heads.  He  has  the  four  following  mental  types.* 

"  Idio-Motor. — This  is  the  lowest  type  of  the  human 
mind.  Its  activities  are  for  the  most  part  instinctive. 
Sensations,  simple  ideas  and  motor  reactions  are  in  this 
type  not  merely  the  materials  out  of  which  mind  and 
practice-activity  are  built,  as  in  higher  types,  but  they 
are  a  chief  content  of  conscious  life.  Intellect  does  not 
develop  much  beyond  perception  and  conjecture.  Be- 
lief is  determined  mainly  by  incident,  habit  and  auto- 
suggestion. The  disposition  is  aggressive  and  the  char- 
acter forceful.  Examples  are  afforded  by  the  lowest 
savages,  and  in  several  populations  by  the  physically 
active  but  ignorant. 

"  Idio-Emotional. — This  is  somewhat  weakly  but  almost 
continuously  emotional  rather  than  physically  active.  Its 
intellect  is  imaginative.  Its  beliefs  are  largely  deter- 
mined by  external  suggestions,  and  it  habitually  rea- 
sons from  superficial  analogy.  It  is  instigative  in  dis- 
position and  convivial  in  character.  Examples  are  af- 
forded by  all  the  higher  savages  and  barbarians,  and 
especially  by  the  negroes.  In  civil  populations  the  type 
is  found  in  two  gradations:  one,  the  emotional  volatile 
minds,  not  dsn&ely  ignorant  but  of  comparatively  little 

*  F.  H.  Giddings :  "  Inductive  Sociology,"  pp.  84-89. 


96  THE  SECTS 

intellectual  development,  and  two,  the  sensuous,  imagi- 
native, artistically  creative  minds,  of  higher  intellectual 
development. 

"Dogmatic-Emotional. — This  type  is  marked  by  an 
extreme  development  of  preferential  attention.  The 
mind  is  fixed  upon  some  one  dominant  idea  or  group 
of  ideas  or  beliefs.  Such  controlling  ideas  arouse  great 
volumes  of  emotion,  which,  in  turn,  create  a  habit  of 
intolerance.  Belief,  in  this  type,  is  suggestively  deter- 
mined by  emotion,  movement  and  temperament.  Rea- 
soning is  habitually  deductive,  and,  while  much  nice  at- 
tention may  be  given  to  the  logical  process,  premises  are 
seldom  subjected  to  a  searching  criticism,  but  are  usually 
accepted  on  trust.  Disposition  is  domineering  and  char- 
acter austere.  Persons  of  this  type  have  often  been  use- 
ful to  the  community  as  reformers  or  even  as  martyrs, 
but  they  are  seldom  temperate  or  judicious  in  their 
methods.  .  .  . 

"Critical-Intellectual. — The  highest  type  of  mind  is 
that  in  which  the  Idio-Motor,  the  Idio-Emotional  and 
the  Dogmatic-Emotional  activities,  never  suppressed, 
much  less  destroyed,  are  habitually  kept  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  critical  and  vigilant  intellect.  Clear  percep- 
tions, sound  judgments,  objectively  determined  by  evi- 
dence and  taking  the  form  of  common  sense,  careful 
reasoning,  deductive  or  inductive,  a  habit  of  subjecting 
premises  no  less  than  logical  processes  to  a  searching 
examination — these  intellectual  activities  constitute  a 
major  part  of  the  mental  life,  and  keep  all  of  the  lower 
processes  in  due  subordination.  Intellect  in  this  type 
may  be  deductive  and  critical,  or  critical  and  inductive. 
Disposition  is  creative  and  character  rationally  con- 
scientious." 


THE  NATURAL  SECTS 


97 


Using  these  types  of  mind  Professor  Giddings  finds 
that  the  denominations  fall  in  the  following  lists.* 

DISTRIBUTION   BY  SECTS 


MIE. 

EIM. 

IEM. 

IME. 

Type  of  Mind  

I 

s 

6  I 

H 
Q 

0*3 

-M   C 

»-H 

0 

•  ""* 

IS 

% 

6 

V 

•O 
t-t 

0 

g 

<U'~ 

2  o 
1 

H 

o 
H 

1! 

QW 

0 

H 

P 

s« 

51 

Adventists  

'A 

V* 

Baptists,  white  

1A 

H 

% 

Baptists,  coloured  

i 

Catholics  

M 

Vs. 

V. 

Catholic  Apostolic  

i 

Christians  

I 

Christian  Scientists  

*4 

1A 

Congregationalists  

—  f% 

/2  « 
.  i  . 

I 

Disciples  of  Christ  

^ 

*A 

Dunkards  

i 

Evangelical  Association  .  .  . 

1A 

*A 

Friends  

i 

German  Evangelical  Prot.  . 

i 

German  Evangelical  Synod. 

i/ 

^ 

Jewish  Congregations  

i 

Latter-Day  Saints  

i2 

1A 

Lutherans  

i 

Mennonites  

i 

Methodists,  white  

a 

it 

1A 

Methodists,  coloured  

i 

Moravians  

i 

Presbyterians  

3/ 

1A 

Protestant  Episcopalians  .  . 

1A 

% 

z 

Reformed  

2 

X 

Salvation  Army  

1A 

i/. 

V* 

'4 

Society  for  Ethical  Culture 

i 

Spiritualists  

i  ^ 

Theosophical  Study  

* 

i 

Unitarians  

i 

Universalists  

i 

All  Others  .  . 

i 

In   this   table   the    Baptists   and   the    Methodists   are 
classed  together.    They  tend  toward  the  Idio-Emotional. 
*  Psychol.  Rev.,  8,  p.  345. 


98  THE  SECTS 

Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  them  are  between  the  Idio- 
Emotional  and  the  Dogmatic- Emotional.  The  Unitarians 
are  all  grouped  between  the  Dogmatic-Emotional  and 
the  Critical-Intellectual.  Twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
Presbyterians  are  in  the  same  class  and  75  per  cent,  are 
in  the  Dogmatic-Emotional  class. 

The  value  of  the  table  is  this:  It  shows  from  the 
sociologist's  point  of  view  the  sects  as  they  group  them- 
selves in  a  progressive  arrangement,  passing  from  traits 
which  are  instinctive,  automatic,  to  traits  which  are  emo- 
tional, affective,  and  then  to  intellectual,  deliberative 
traits. 

We  have  already  seen  that  Professor  Pratt  found  five 
types  of  religious  belief  in  his  questionnaire.  These 
would  correspond  in  many  particulars  with  the  types 
above  presented.  For  example,  his  first  class  was  made 
up  of  those  who  believed  in  God  from  argument  or  rea- 
soning, the  intellectual  element  being  dominant.  His 
'fourth  class  were  characterized  by  a  desire  to  believe,  a 
matter  of  volition;  and  his  fifth  class  were  those  whose 
religious  belief  arose  from  profound  experiences, — they 
"  felt "  God.  We  have  also  seen  that  Professor  Leuba 
agrees  with  these  general  positions,  in  that  he  groups 
religious  philosophers  into  the  three  classes  influenced 
by  the  intellect,  the  emotional  or  the  volitional  factors 
respectively. 

Each  of  these  four  independent  studies  made  by  men 
interested  in  different  phases  of  the  subject  bring  out  the 
same  general  facts.  It  is  evident  that  the  tv/o  distinctive 
traits  in  human  nature,  the  intellectual  and  the  emo- 
tional, are  two  poles  around  which  other  traits  gather. 
If  we  spread  the  characteristics  of  the  sects  before  us, 
they  will  fall  into  a  plan  which  shows  one  of  these  poles 


THE  NATURAL  SECTS  99 

upon  one  side,  the  other  upon  the  opposite  side,  and 
gradations  shading  from  the  one  to  the  other  in  be- 
tween. 

It  is  not  easy  to  turn  to  the  denominations  themselves 
and  to  say,  "  Here  is  a  distinctively  intellectual  or  emo- 
tional people/'  because  in  the  present  day  the  churches 
have  so  much  in  common.  Cities  exercise  a  large  in- 
fluence. Men  who  are  engaged  in  the  same  sort  of 
occupation,  living  the  same  sort  of  lives,  reading  the 
same  newspapers,  enjoying  the  same  amusements,  are 
very  apt  to  worship  in  the  same  way.  They  have  their 
thoughts  trained  in  the  same  schools,  they  have  their 
feelings  aroused  by  much  the  same  literature.  They  are 
levelled  down.  The  Church  helps  in  this  process.  The 
greater  number  of  members  in  the  churches  come  from 
the  Sunday-school.  In  the  Sunday-school  there  may  be 
many  different  types  of  mind,  but  social  pressure,  the 
influence  of  others,  the  imitation  of  the  example  of  other 
youths,  all  tend  to  sweep  different  types  from  the  Sunday- 
school  into  the  same  church.  This  evil  is  partially 
remedied  by  adults  seeking  the  most  congenial  church 
in  later  life;  especially  when  they  move  from  one  locality 
to  another.  It  is  also  true,  unfortunately,  that  social 
prestige  frequently  persuades  them  from  their  genuine 
religious  preference.  Some  people  attend,  and  even  join, 
the  Church  which  has  the  highest  local  social  standing. 
Nevertheless,  if  these  religious  traits  are  genuine,  we 
shall  expect  to  find  them  giving  evidence  of  their  exist- 
ence in  the  sects.  That  there  are  in  every  community  of 
any  size  whatever  different  types  of  mind,  no  one  can 
doubt.  This  appears  in  many  ways.  A  certain  class  of 
people  prefer  a  certain  type  of  newspaper,  a  certain  kind 
of  magazine,  a  certain  class  of  theatres,  a  certain  class  of 


ioo  THE  SECTS 

books  from  the  public  library,  certain  kinds  of  amuse- 
ment, and,  of  course,  a  certain  kind  of  church.  It  would 
be  an  interesting  study  to  show  the  correlation  between 
newspapers,  theatres,  books,  amusements  and  sects. 

Let  us  take  two  very  dissimilar  sects,  both  of  Ameri- 
can origin,  both  among  people  of  some  culture — the  Uni- 
tarian and  the  Christian  Science.  The  Unitarian  has 
been  described  by  Dr.  du  Buy.  He  is  classed  by  Pro- 
fessor Giddings  as  one  of  the  most  intellectual  and  one 
of  the  least  emotional.  The  Christian  Scientist  reasons 
in  a  very  different  way  from  the  Unitarian.  Into  the 
Scientists'  reasoning  the  "  affective  processes  "  enter  with 
great  power.  Close-knit  reasoning  has  no  place  in  the 
^Christian  Science  regime.  The  book  which  takes  its 
place  alongside  of  the  Bible  appeals  not  to  a  logical  mind, 
but  to  an  impressionable  mind.  It  urges  its  theories  by 
constant  reiteration  and  a  remarkable  obscuration  of 
logic*-*  No  scientist,  no  philosopher,  no  historian,  v/ould 
be  convinced  of  the  truth  claimed  by  Christian  Science 
from  the  argument  sent  forth.  Only  those  who  read  the 
book  or  listen  to  the  followers  of  Christian  Science  with 
a  desire  to  better  their  physical  health  or  change  their 
spiritual  life  find  its  reasoning  at  all  cogent.  The  cogency 
is  due  not  to  intellect,  but  to  sympathetic  feeling.  There 
is  the  desire,  the  will  to  believe.  It  acts  as  the  affective 
nature  always  acts  upon  the  intellect,  it  distorts,  preju- 
dices. We  shall  expect  to  find  among  the  Christian  Sci- 
entists more  people  of  an  emotional  type  than  among  the 
Unitarians.  Is  there  any  way  of  making  an  analysis 
which  would  show  the  character  of  the  two  sects  ?  There 
is  an  indirect  test.  We  shall  see  later  on  that  the  type 
of  mind  which  makes  Christian  Science  possible  is  dis- 
'  tinctly  more  feminize  than  the  type  of  mind  which  issues 


THE  NATURAL  SECTS  101 

in  Unitarianism.  So,  then,  we  should  expect  to  find 
a  larger  proportion  of  women  in  the  Christian  Science 
churches  than  in  the  Unitarian  churches.  And  this  is 
exactly  what  appears  in  the  Census  for  Religious  Bodies 
in  1906.  Here  it  is  shown  that  women  outnumber  men 
in  all  churches ;  but  that  the  Unitarian  Church  averages 
fewer  women  than  most  of  the  others.  There  are  60.8 
per  cent,  of  women  in  the  membership  of  the  Unitarian 
Church  and  72.4  per  cent,  in  the  Christian  Science 
Church.  This  great  difference  cannot  be  due  to  chance. 
It  is  undoubtedly  due  to  actual  differences  of  religious 
type. 

The  statistics  which  show  the  proportion  of  women 
to  men  are  influenced  by  a  number  of  things.  The  pro- 
portion is  different  in  different  sections  of  the  country. 
Different  local  influences  will  affect  it  also.  It  varies  in 
churches  of  the  same  denomination  in  the  same  city.  So 
it  is  a  proportion  that  cannot  tell  us  a  great  deal;  but 
where  so  wide  a  difference  appears  as  that  we  have  just 
noticed,  it  is  evidence  of  a  fundamental  native  difference. 

Another  way  of  testing  the  same  matter  is  afforded 
by  this  same  census  report.  Instead  of  looking  for  emo- 
tional factors  as  evidences  of  differences  in  sects,  we  may 
look  for  traits  indicative  of  the  intellectual  factor.  In 
the  ordinary  walks  of  life,  the  intelligence  of  a  com- 
munity is  gauged  by  certain  objective  results.  If  a  peo- 
ple is  intelligent,  it  shows.  In  a  rough  way,  the  material 
positions  are  an  index  of  ability.  "  The  fool  and  his 
money  are  soon  parted."  The  more  intelligence  a  man 
has,  the  larger  his  income  will  probably  be.  Of  course, 
there  are  so  many  glaring  contradictions  to  this  excellent 
rule  that  many  doubt  its  worth.  Nevertheless,  a  little 
reflection  will  show  that  the  untrained  labourer  cannot 


IO2 


THE  SECTS 


earn  as  much  as  the  one  who  has  learned  a  trade,  nor 
does  he  who  has  just  enough  ability  to  earn  a  living  in 
a  trade  earn  as  much  as  the  professional  man  or  the 
business  man.  This  hard  matter-of-fact  gauge  of  men's 
ability  may  be  used  in  our  present  study.  Surely,  the 
material  possessions  of  the  members  of  the  several  sects 
are  some  index  of  their  place  in  the  social  order  and 
of  the  intelligence  which  won  them  that  place.  In  spite 
of  the  many  exceptions  to  the  rule,  we  may  say  that  the 
wealthier  churches  are  undoubtedly  the  more  intellectual 
churches.  The  next  question  is  how  to  gauge  the  wealth 
of  the  churches.  It  does  not  appear  in  the  value  of 
the  church  property.  For  churches  which  are  in  the 
cities  would  have  the  more  valuable  property.  Nor  does 
it  appear  in  their  benevolences,  for  the  poor  religionist 
may  well  be  the  more  generous.  It  does  appear,  how- 
ever, in  the  salaries  which  the  members  of  the  churches 
pay  their  ministers.  This  is  an  excellent  index  of  the 
wealth  of  a  church.  For  the  salary  is  the  least  erratic 
expenditure  which  the  church  makes,  and  tells  better 
than  anything  else  the  status  of  the  church.  Making 
such  a  comparison  we  have  the  following  table. 

AVERAGE  SALARY  OF  MINISTERS 


Cities  of  100,000- 

300,000  300,000 

Unitarian    $2940  $2472 

Presbyterian    2169  1806 

Congregational   1938  1701 

Protestant  Episcopal  1873  1533 

Baptist  1580  1420 

Methodist  1422  1275 

Disciples    1326  1313 

Evangelical  Associa- 
tion       812  774 


Outside 

50,000- 

25,000- 

Principal 

100,000 

50,000 

Cities 

$2048 

$1876 

$1221 

1711 

1524 

977* 

1764 

1512 

880 

1558., 

1517 

994 

1381 

1248 

683 

1207 

1187 

741 

1283 

1250 

526 

738 


668 


568 


THE  NATURAL  SECTS  103 

This  shows  for  eight  churches,  selected  because  of 
their  distinctively  American  history  and  character,  that 
the  Unitarian  and  Presbyterian  are  both  better  off  in 
this  world's  goods  than  the  Methodist  and  Baptist. 

Another  way  of  attacking  the  same  question  is  to 
compare  the  denominations  which  appeal  to  people  liv- 
ing in  the  cities  and  to  people  living  in  the  country. 
Again  it  may  be  maintained,  in  a  large  way,  that  the 
average  city  member  has  had  a  better  education  and 
ranks  higher  intellectually  than  the  member  of  a  coun- 
try church.  The  statistics  for  illiteracy  show  a  very 
much  higher  rate  for  the  country  than  for  the  city.  In 
the  cities  the  opportunities  for  exchanging  ideas  are 
greater  than  in  the  country.  Whatever  vigour  and 
virtue  may  come  from  the  country  to  the  city,  the  city 
still  enjoys  a  preeminence  of  education  and  intelligence. 
If  we  select  the  same  eight  sects  and  compare  their 
proportion  of  members  in  the  country  and  in  the  city, 
we  find  a  correspondence.*  In  this  comparison  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  has  more  members  in  her 
city  churches  than  in  the  country  churches:  more  ex- 
actly in  the  cities  of  25,000  and  over  it  has  over  50 
per  cent.;  falling  in  order  of  city  membership  are  the 
Unitarian,  the  Congregational,  the  Presbyterian,  the 
Evangelical,  the  Methodist,  the  Baptist  and  the  Dis- 
ciples. So,  the  four  churches  which  lead  the  list  in 
wealth  are  the  four  churches  which  have  spread  in  the 
cities  rather  than  the  country,  and  the  four  churches 
which  give  their  ministers  the  smaller  salaries  are  the 
churches  which  have  spread  in  the  country.  It  might 
be  argued  that  such  churches  as  the  Baptist  and  Metho- 
dist, with  their  great  missionary  zeal,  have  built  more 

*  See  p.  83  of  Census  Report  for  Religious  Bodies,  1906. 


104  THE  SECTS 

churches  in  the  country  and  have  striven  harder  to  win 
converts;  but  when  a  comparison  is  made  of  the  num- 
ber of  communicants  per  church  in  these  several  de- 
nominations for  all  places  of  less  than  25,000  inhabi- 
tants, it  appears  that  the  Presbyterian  and  Baptist  have 
the  same  number  of  churches  per  member;  so,  too,  with 
the  Episcopalian  and  the  Methodist,  the  Congregational 
and  the  Disciples.  It  is  hardly  a  matter  of  missionary 
zeal,  it  is  rather  a  matter  of  temperament.  The  more 
emotional  type  of  Christianity  appeals  more  to  the  man 
who  does  not  earn  his  bread  by  his  brain  alone. 

Statistics  are  very  uncertain  props  to  arguments. 
Like  the  Scriptures  in  the  hands  of  the  backwoods 
preacher,  almost  anything  may  be  proved  from  them. 
However,  the  trends  just  noted  seem  so  obvious  that 
they  certainly  may  be  taken  as  corroborations  of  the 
characterizations  made  above. 

It  remains,  therefore,  to  study  the  traits  of  human 
nature  which  give  expression  of  themselves  in  these 
different  religious  preferences  and  organizations. 


VIII 
TYPES  OF  HUMAN  NATURE 

IN  the  opening  chapters  a  number  of  facts  con- 
nected with  individuality  and  typical  characteristics 
of  human  nature  were  discussed.  In  a  general 
way  it  was  seen  that  every  person  has  his  own  mental 
and  moral  make-up,  but  that  in  all  this  individuality 
there  may,  also,  be  found  a  number  of  traits  in  com- 
mon among  men;  so  that  it  was  possible  to  speak  of 
types  of  men.  Nothing  was  said  concerning  exactly 
what  types  of  human  nature  may  be  found.  It  was 
merely  pointed  out  that  the  average  man  classed  his 
fellows  in  obvious  types  which  were  based  upon  practical 
matters.  Such  a  classification  grows  up  naturally  in 
the  intercourse  between  men;  it  is  one  of  the  conveni- 
ences of  common  sense.  We  have  also  seen  that  the 
religious  nature  shows  preferences  in  its  modes  of  ex- 
pression. Here,  too,  the  differences  found  in  each  soul 
evidently  have  much  in  common,  for  these  religious  ex- 
pressions fall  into  types  which  roughly  correspond  with 
types  of  sects.  The  next  inquiry  must  be  concerning  the 
great  types  into  which  human  nature  may  be  divided, 
not  by  the  common  sense  of  the  average  man,  but  by 
the  careful  study  of  the  scientist. 

It  is  a  very  striking  fact  that  from  Hippocrates  and 
Galen  to  Kant  and  Wundt,  the  same  classification  of 
human  nature  has  held  sway.  Through  all  these  cen- 

105 


io6  THE  SECTS 

turies  the  classification  of  Hippocrates  into  Choleric, 
Melancholic,  Sanguine  and  Phlegmatic  has  seemed  de- 
scriptive of  the  various  kinds  of  human  temperaments. 
Hippocrates  found  his  explanation  of  these  four  tem- 
peraments in  the  presence  of  various  properties  in  the 
system.  Too  great  a  proportion  of  yellow  bile  gives 
rise  to  a  Choleric  temperament,  while  black  bile  in- 
duces the  Melancholic;  so,  too,  the  blood  is  responsible 
for  the  Sanguine  and  the  phlegm  for  the  Phlegmatic. 
Galen  found  the  same  four  types  of  nature  among  his 
fellow-men,  but  sought  to  explain  it  upon  other  con- 
ditions, namely;  the  presence  of  heat,  cold,  dryness  and 
moisture.  Evidently,  these  ancient  savants  observed 
the  kinds  of  temperament  they  encountered  and  then 
sought  to  find  physical  bases  for  them.  Later  philoso- 
phers sought  to  find  the  expanation  of  various  tempera- 
ments in  various  organs  of  the  body;  some  thought 
the  thorax,  the  abdomen  or  the  brains  were  the  seats 
of  various  temperaments.  Others  tried  to  explain  dif- 
ferences in  temperament  by  the  nervous  system.  Henle 
maintained  that  the  sensor  and  motor  nervous  systems 
vary  in  tonicity,  and  that  these  variations  account  for 
differences  in  temperament.  No  less  an  authority  than 
Wundt,  the  Nestor  of  modern  experimental  psychology, 
following  Henle's  cue,  seeks  to  explain  Hippocrates'  four 
temperaments  in  terms  of  the  quickness,  alertness, 
energy  and  strength  of  mental  processes.  So  he  finds 
the  quick-strong  give  the  Choleric;  the  quick-weak, 
the  Sanguine;  the  slow-strong,  the  Melancholic;  the 
slow-weak,  the  Phlegmatic.*  M.  Fouillee  finds  the  ex- 
planation of  temperament  in  the  processes  which  main- 
tain life.  These  processes  are  the  building  up,  anabolic, 
*  G.  T.  Ladd :  "  Outlines  of  Physical  Psychology,"  1893,  p.  45°". 


TYPES  OF  HUMAN  NATURE  107 

and  the  tearing  down,  catabolic.  These,  he  maintains, 
act  something  as  the  centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces 
in  mechanics.  They  act  and  react  together;  when  the 
one  set,  the  disintegrative,  is  active  in  greater  propor- 
tion than  the  other  set,  the  integrative,  the  result  is  a 
temperament  of  a  characteristic  kind.  In  this  way  he 
would  account  for  the  forceful,  aggressive,  expansive 
types  and  the  quiet,  retiring,  placid  types.*  Fouillee 
sees  in  the  activity  of  the  male  and  the  passivity  of  the 
female  a  corroboration  of  his  theory. 

Recent  studies  in  physiology  point  out  the  influence 
of  certain  bodies,  whose  functions  have  long  been  mys- 
teries, upon  the  temperament.  The  thyroid  body,  the 
soft,  vascular  body  composed  largely  of  blood-vessels, 
situated  in  the  neck,  fastened  to  the  larynx,  has  a  most 
potent  influence  upon  an  individual's  entire  life.  When 
affected  it  may  reduce  one  to  an  apathy  which  amounts 
almost  to  imbecility,  or  it  may  arouse  one  to  a  maniacal 
excitement.  Another  little  body,  very  insignificant  in 
appearance,  is  situated  in  the  brain  and  has  appeared 
to  be  of  no  service  whatever.  This  pituitary  body  is 
now  thought  to  exercise  an  influence  upon  the  whole 
physical  organism.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the 
distinctive  organs  of  the  male  and  the  female  have  very 
profound  influences  upon  temperament,  and  that  their 
loss,  or  injury,  may  occasion  changes,  which  in  the 
male  tend  to  develop  certain  feminine  traits;  and  in  the 
female  tend  to  produce  certain  masculine  traits,  such 
as  growth  of  hair  on  face,  deepening  of  the  voice,  etc. 
The  circulatory  system  carrying  nutrition  to  the  whole 
body,  the  respiratory  system  supplying  oxygen  to  the 
blood,  both  greatly  influence  the  conscious  life.  Of 

*A.  Fouillee:    "Temperament  et  caractere,"  pp.  3-13,  76-80. 


io8  THE  SECTS 

course,  we  cannot  say  that  the  seat  of  a  certain  tempera- 
ment is  in  heart  or  lungs,  because  depression  follows 
upon  the  affection  of  these  organs;  or  an  exhilaration 
follows  upon  their  stimulation. 

"  Again  we  know  that  certain  diseases  tend  to  pro- 
duce specific  changes  of  temperament,  that  phthisis 
often  gives  it  a  bright  and  hopeful  turn,  diabetes,  a  dis- 
satisfied and  cantankerous  turn.  It  is  clear  that,  in 
some  such  cases  of  profound  alteration  of  tempera- 
ment by  bodily  disorder,  the  effects  are  produced  by 
means  of  the  chemical  products  of  metabolism,  which, 
being  thrown  out  of  the  disordered  tissues  into  the 
blood  and  reaching  the  nervous  system  by  way  of  the 
blood-stream,  chemically  modify  its  processes. 

"  It  is  probable  that  every  organ  in  the  body  asserts 
in  this  indirect  way  some  influence  upon  our  mental 
life,  and  that  temperament  is  in  large  measure  the 
resultant  of  all  these  many  contributory  chemical  in- 
fluences. Most  of  the  bodily  organs  probably  cooperate 
in  determining  temperament  in  another  way  hardly  less 
important.  All  of  them  are  supplied  with  afferent 
nerves — nerves  that  constantly  carry  impulses  up  from 
the  organs  to  the  central  nervous  system.  And  all  these 
impulses  probably  modify  in  some  degree  the  general 
working  of  the  nervous  system  and  play  some  part  in 
determining  the  '  coenaesthesia/  the  obscure  back- 
ground of  consciousness  on  which  the  general  tone  of 
our  mental  life  chiefly  depends."  * 

It  is  evident  that  physiology  cannot  supply  us  with 
types  of  temperament.  Its  problems  are  so  complicated, 
the  factors  entering  into  them  are  so  numerous  and 

*Wm.  McDougall:  "An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology," 
p.  119. 


TYPES  OF  HUMAN  NATURE  109 

their  analysis  so  intricate,  that  we  cannot  hope  to  find 
in  the  medical  sciences  of  to-day  any  thorough-going 
explanations  of  types  of  human  nature.  Undoubtedly, 
the  physical  affects  the  spiritual  in  many  ways,  and 
could  we  understand  these  physical  factors  thoroughly, 
we  might  be  in  a  position  to  classify  all  human  beings 
according  to  their  physical  traits.  To-day,  however,  it 
is  impossible. 

A  much  more  promising  line  of  approach  is  that  fur- 
nished by  the  psychologist.  He  does  not  endeavour  to 
connect  consciousness  and  its  physical  seating,  but 
studies  the  phenomena  of  consciousness  alone.  To  the 
psychologist  there  are,  also,  several  types  of  character 
and  disposition.  He  makes  his  study  from  observations 
of  temperaments  themselves.  One  very  interesting 
analysis  of  human  nature  is  that  of  Malapert.*  He 
finds  the  following  factors  in  human  nature,  and  their 
prominence  causes  these  varieties.  He  finds  that  the 
emotions,  the  intellect,  the  will  and  actions  furnish  cen- 
tres around  which  we  may  group  various  traits  and 
class  them  as  types  of  temperaments.  Each  of  these 
central  factors  he  studies  carefully  and  finds  that  they 
represent  a  type  of  nature  which  may  be  divided  into 
subtypes.  The  Impressionable  type  varies  from  the 
Apathetic  to  the  Passionate  and  includes  people  in- 
capable of  strong  lively  impressions,  and  people  with 
lively  sensitivity  but  superficial,  also,  people  with  pro- 
found emotions  which  affect  their  entire  being;  and, 
also,  the  sentimental;  and  the  irritable.  Here  is  a 
varied  assortment  of  kinds  of  impressionable,  emotional 
folk.  Somewhere  in  these  lists  we  find  a  place  for 
everyone  whom  we  have  considered  of  the  emotional 

*  P.    Malapert :    "  Las   elements    du   caractere." 


i  io  THE  SECTS 

type.  Among  those  in  whom  Intellect  is  a  predominant 
trait,  Malapert  finds  the  Analytic, — the  doubter,  the 
sceptic;  the  Critical  type  from  which  comes  the  con- 
noisseur; the  Conservative  type,  which  includes  the 
practical,  the  precise,  the  positive  man  who  is  also 
afraid  of  progress;  the  Speculative  type  which  is  con- 
structive and  given  to  large  generalizations.  Among 
those  in  whom  Volition  is  a  prominent  characteristic,  we 
find  a  series  of  classes  ranging  from  the  individual  in 
whom  the  absence  of  will-power  is  striking,  to  those  in 
whom  it  is  ever  active,  from  pathological  cases  to  the 
great  masters  of  achievements.  In  the  Action  type  the 
range  is  from  the  indolent,  the  inert  through  the  slow, 
heavy,  dull,  to  the  excitable,  capricious  and  impulsive. 
Though  this  study  is  very  suggestive,  it  is  evident  that 
some  of  these  classes  overlap  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  almost  coincide.  This  makes  it  difficult  to  class 
anyone  with  any  assurance.  A  simpler  classification  is 
needed. 

Such  a  classification  is  afforded  in  part  by  Professor 
Giddings. 

"  Descriptive  sociology  has  arrived  at  a  stage  at 
which  it  seems  necessary  to  attempt  to  make  a  distribu- 
tion of  the  population  of  any  nation  or  community  into 
psychological  classes.  We  know,  for  example,  that  in 
the  population  of  the  United  States  are  some  tens  of 
thousands  of  instinctive,  animal-like  creatures,  passion- 
ate and  violent;  that  thousands  of  others  are  imagina- 
tive, weakly  but  persistently  emotional,  and  easily  in- 
fluenced by  suggestion;  that  yet  others  are  more  or  less 
fanatical,  speculative,  devoted  to  '  causes/  '  reforms ' 
and  so  on,  without  end;  and  that,  finally,  some  are 
critical,  calculating,  inductive,  scientific.  We  know,  fur- 


TYPES  OF  HUMAN  NATURE  in 

ther,  that  concerted  volition  of  every  description  takes 
its  character  from  the  proportions  in  which  these  dif- 
ferent psychological  classes  are  combined.  One  com- 
bination makes  the  mob  or  the  lynching  party,  another 
combination  makes  the  deliberative  assembly;  one  com- 
bination makes  one  sort  of  political  policy  and  scheme 
of  legislation,  another  combination  makes  a  different 
policy  and  a  different  legislation.  Great  masses  of 
statistics  will  acquire  significance  if  the  distribution  of 
a  population  into  psychological  classes  can  be  made. 
If  the  distribution  is  impossible,  the  statistics  must  re- 
main meaningless. 

"  The  analysis  of  mental  phenomena  into  motor,  af- 
fective (or  emotional)  and  intellective  aspects,  suggests 
a  threefold  grouping."  * 

This  threefold  grouping  Professor  Giddings  does  not 
follow  closely,  but  amplifies  it  into  the  ancient  four- 
fold classification.  It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  the 
three  fundamental  modes  of  mental  phenomena  fur- 
nish us  an  ample  basis  for  a  classification.  All  that 
appear  in  more  elaborate  tabulations  may  be  entered 
under  one  of  these  heads. 

Though  we  cannot  find  a  physical  basis  for  this 
classification  of  types  of  human  nature,  there  is  at  least 
a  suggestive  analogy  to  be  noted.  The  nervous  system 
is,  of  course,  one  great  system.  However,  its  functions 
vary.  There  is  the  sensory  nervous  system,  which  con- 
veys impressions  to  the  brain.  There  is  the  central 
nervous  system,  the  brain,  which  receives  these  im- 
pressions, retains  them,  combines  them  and  then  uses 
them  in  sending  out  impulses  to  the  motor  nervous  sys- 
tem, which  directs  movements.  It  is  easy  to  imagine 

*  Psychol.  Rev.,  8,  p.  338. 


H2  THE  SECTS 

that  these  three  sets  of  processes  will  not  operate  in 
just  the  same  way  among  all  people.  Certain  bodily 
conditions  may  affect  the  sensory  system  so  that  one 
person  is  receiving  a  larger  proportion  of  impressions, 
or  sensations,  or  emotions  than  another;  or  the  sensory 
system  itself  may  be  more  susceptible  to  impression  in 
one  man  than  in  another.  Again,  one  central  system, 
the  clearing-house  of  impressions,  may  have  greater 
retention,  better  coordination  than  another.  While  a 
third  gives  expression  to  his  thoughts  or  his  feelings 
more  quickly,  more  easily  than  his  fellows.  So  it  is 
possible  to  imagine  differences  in  the  whole  organism 
operating  to  influence  these  three  portions  of  the  nerv- 
ous system;  and  the  activities  of  these  three  systems  in 
turn  give  rise  to  the  Affective,  the  Intellectual,  and  the 
Motor  types.  However  it  may  be  with  the  physical 
bases  of  these  types  matters  little;  the  important  thing 
is  that,  in  this  tripartite  arrangement  of  functions,  we 
have  a  classification  of  human  nature  which  is  adequate. 
Of  course,  these  types  do,  in  some  measure,  run  into 
each  other.  Nevertheless,  we  have  three  large  centers 
of  native  characteristics;  their  fringes  blend,  but  the 
centres  are  distinct.  To  illustrate  what  is  meant,  let  us 
consider  several  periods  of  human  life.  In  the  earliest 
years  the  motor  factors  are  in  greatest  prominence.  The 
child  acts  he  knows  not  why.  Dispositions  wrought  into 
the  fibre  of  his  being  from  countless  generations  of 
ancestors,  express  themselves  independently  of  his  con- 
trol. He  closes  his  hand  when  his  palm  is  touched;  he 
raises  whatever  he  grasps  to  his  mouth;  he  sucks  every- 
thing suckable;  he  is  a  bundle  of  instincts.  The  first 
great  business  in  life  during  the  early  years  is  to  man- 
age the  body  in  relation  to  its  surroundings,  and  this 


TYPES  OF  HUMAN  NATURE  113 

management  is  instinctive  in  great  measure.  It  is  the 
instinctive  impulse  to  move  the  limbs  which  results  in 
standing  erect  and  in  walking.  There  is  the  impulse 
to  exercise  which  results  in  play.  The  hunting  instinct 
in  boys  soon  appears,  and  the  fighting  instinct  to  de- 
fend themselves,  or  what  they  may  claim  as  their  own. 
So,  too,  the  maternal  instinct  in  little  girls  to  cherish 
and  protect  asserts  itself  very  early.  These  little  folk 
do  a  great  many  things  which  they  are  prompted  to  do 
without  their  giving  the  least  deliberation  to  their  be- 
haviour. Under  the  heading  of  "  Growth  in  Motor 
Power  and  Function,"  Stanley  Hall  describes  this  same 
sort  of  life  as  it  appears  in  the  early  ages  of  the  race.* 

"  For  unnumbered  generations  primitive  man  in  the 
nomad  age  wandered,  made,  perhaps,  annual  migra- 
tions, and  bore  heavy  burdens,  while  we  ride  relatively 
unencumbered.  He  tilled  the  reluctant  soil,  digging 
with  rude  implements  where  we  use  machines  of  many 
man-power.  In  the  stone,  iron  and  bronze  age,  he 
shaped  stone  and  metals,  and  wrought  with  infinite 
pains  and  effort,  products  that  we  buy  without  even 
knowledge  of  the  processes  by  which  they  are  made. 
As  hunter  he  followed  game,  and  when  found,  he  chased, 
fought  and  overcame  it  in  a  struggle  perhaps  desperate, 
while  we  shoot  it  at  a  distance  with  little  risk  or  effort. 
In  warfare  he  fought  hand  to  hand  and  eye  to  eye,  while 
we  kill  (  with  as  much  black  powder  as  can  be  put  in  a 
woman's  thimble.'  He  caught  and  domesticated  scores 
of  species  of  wild  animals  and  taught  them  to  serve 
him;  fished  with  patience  and  skill  that  compensated 
his  crude  tools,  weapons,  implements  and  tackle;  danced 
to  exhaustion  in  the  service  of  his  gods  or  in  memory 

*Adolesence,  Vol.  I,  p.  167. 


114  THE  SECTS 

of  his  forebears,  imitating  every  animal,  rehearsing 
all  his  own  activities  in  mimic  form  to  the  point  of  ex- 
haustion, while  we  move  through  a  few  figures  in  closed 
spaces.  He  dressed  hides,  wove  baskets  which  we  can- 
not reproduce,  and  fabrics  which  we  only  poorly  imitate 
by  machinery,  made  pottery  which  set  our  fashions, 
played  games  that  invigorated  body  and  soul.  His  court- 
ship was  with  feats  of  prowess  and  skill,  and  meant 
physical  effort  and  endurance." 

Among  adult  human  beings  in  civilized  countries,  the 
motor  type  is  not  considered  a  very  high  type.  He  is 
apt  to  be  largely  determined  in  his  course  of  conduct  by 
unreasoning  promptings,  instinctive  impulses,  by  habits 
which  he  has  formed,  and,  as  we  shall  see  later,  by 
auto-suggestion;  he  does  not  reason  in  a  straight  line, 
he  guesses.  He  does  not  concentrate  his  attention  upon 
a  problem,  but  allows  his  attention  to  be  diverted  by 
external  interests.  He  is  often  very  active  and  ag- 
gressive. 

As  the  individual  matures,  there  are  a  number  of 
physical  changes  which  occur  during  the  age  of  ado- 
lescence. Most  prominent  among  these  are  develop- 
ments which  make  for  the  expansion  of  the  emotional 
nature.  Various  organs  change  in  size  relative  to  the 
entire  organism.  It  is  then  that  the  distinctive  traits  of 
sex  begin  to  appear.  Likes  and  dislikes,  sympathies  and 
antipathies  become  very  pronounced.  During  these  years 
it  is  what  one  feels  that  actuates  life.  This  is  the  great 
emotional  period  of  life.  We  cannot  say  exactly  when 
the  motor  type  gives  place  to  the  emotional  type,  or 
in  just  what  proportion  the  emotional  nature  dominates 
over  the  other  nature.  But,  anyone  can  easily  observe 
the  dominance  of  emotional  characteristics  in  youths. 


TYPES  OF  HUMAN  NATURE  115 

Among  adults  these  traits  of  earlier  years  persist  in 
varying  proportions.  Some  are  more  impulsive,  in- 
stinctive in  their  conduct  than  others,  some  are  more 
impressionable,  emotional. 

Another  situation  presents  itself  in  maturity.  Here 
we  have  to  do  with  the  adult  who  has  "  found  him- 
self." He  is  no  longer  impelled  by  promptings  which 
he  cannot  understand,  nor  is  he  swayed  by  emotions 
over  which  he  does  not  seek  control.  He  is  deliberative, 
meditative,  acts  after  he  has  represented  to  his  mind 
the  possible  outcome  of  his  action.  He  is  less  given  to 
activity  and  to  feeling  than  he  was  in  his  earlier  years, 
though  the  traits  of  the  earlier  periods  have  not  by  any 
means  entirely  disappeared.  Every  sane  adult  has 
passed  the  period  of  unreasoning  impulse  and  of  emo- 
tions. Reason  asserts  itself  in  every  normal  adult.  The 
point  to  be  noticed  is,  that  these  other  elements  appear 
in  greater  proportion  in  one  class  than  in  another.  In 
brief,  we  may  not  only  divide  our  fellow-beings  accord- 
ing to  age,  but  we  may  also  divide  them  into  three  great 
groups  in  which  the  characteristics  of  the  three  periods 
of  life  assert  themselves. 


IX 

ACTION  TYPES 

WE  have  already  seen  in  the  survey  of  the  sects 
that  the  Experiential  type  is  the  largest.  In 
this  type  the  feelings  lie  at  the  bottom  of  the 
religious  life.  Indeed,  we  may  say  that  the  feelings 
lie  at  the  bottom  of  all  religious  life,  of  every  type; 
(but  in  the  Experiential  type  the  feelings  are  not  only 
the  foundation  but  they  are,  also,  a  large  part  of  the 
superstructure.  We  saw  in  the  survey  of  religious 
s.  types  that  the  emotional  type  occurred  the  most  fre- 
quently. So  it  is  perfectly  safe  to  say  that  the  feelings 
are  the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  religion.  Professor 
Starbuck  *  defines  the  part  the  feelings  play  in  religion 
by  showing  the  value  of  feelings  in  other  phases  of  life. 
For  example,  it  is  to  the  feelings  that  we  turn  in  our 
judgments  of  Wagner's  music,  or  Raphael's  painting. 
These  finer  feelings  are  better  capable  of  making  judg- 
ments than  any  intellectual  reasoning,  they  guide  us  with 
more  certainty.  In  the  common  walks  of  life  the  feel- 
ings are  often  called  intuitions  and  not  infrequently 
play  important  and  valuable  parts  in  selecting  our 
friends,  governing  our  course  of  conduct  and  shaping  the 
destiny  of  our  lives.  Is  it  too  much  to  say  that  in 
spite  of  the  misleadings  of  the  feelings  their  true 
leadings  have  accomplished  great  triumphs  in  civiliza- 

*  Amer.  Jour,  of  Relig.*  Psychol.  and  Educ,,  i,  pp.  168-186. 

116 


ACTION  TYPES  117 

tion?  May  we  not  claim  that  the  vigour  and  inspira- 
tion of  life  subside  as  the  affective  elements  decrease? 
The  feelings  which  represent  the  historic  consciousness 
of  the  Christian  church  have  stood  as  beacon  lights  of 
civilization.  Love,  the  central  theme  of  Christianity, 
is  the  one  great  hope  of  our  wayward  race.  By  it  the 
ideals  of  civilization  may  ultimately  become  real  and 
permanent. 

It  is  impossible,  as  has  been  frequently  said,  to  draw 
boundary  lines  around  the  qualities  of  human  nature. 
Emotion  is  a  prominent  quality,  so  is  intelligence,  so  is 
instinct.  These  blend  with  one  another  as  the  colours 
of  the  spectrum  blend  together.  There  are  qualities  of 
which  we  may  say,  this  is  distinctively  an  emotion 
and  this  distinctively  intellect.  Emotion  then  shades  off 
on  one  side  into  intelligence  and  on  the  other  side  into 
instinct.  This  chapter  is  devoted  to  those  qualities  of 
human  nature  which  may  be  called  action  qualities ; 
truly  the  feelings  run  through  them,  but  the  feelings 
are  not  the  characteristic  things  about  them.  It  is 
not  easy  to  find  a  descriptive  word  for  these  qualities, 
but,  as  they  all  make  for  action  directly,  they  may  be 
termed  qualities  which  indicate  an  Action  type. 

In  trying  to  understand  human  nature  the  best  point 
of  departure  is  in  a  study  of  animal  nature.  Here  the 
problem  is  simplified.  The  first  duty  of  every  living 
creature  is  to  act  so  that  its  life  may  be  preserved ;  Na- 
ture is  concerned  first  of  all  with  the  behaviour  of  an 
animal.  Long  before  any  structures  appear  which  would 
serve  for  the  seats  of  emotion  or  intellect  there  are 
structures  to  govern  the  movements  of  the  animal. 
These  movements  are  the  priceless  heritage  of  genera- 
tions, the  structure  passed  from  parent  to  progeny  has 


n8  THE  SECTS 

been  evolved  to  do  certain  things  on  certain  occasions; 
the  doing  of  these  things  we  call  instinctive  actions. 
Every  lover  of  animals  is  familiar  with  a  host  of  such 
activities. 

Professor  James  defines  instinct  as  "  the  faculty  of 
acting  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  certain  ends,  without 
foresight  of  the  ends,  and  without  previous  education  in 
the  performance."  *  This  definition  has  been  criticised 
by  a  number  of  biologists  and  the  tendency,  now,  is  to 
recognize  not  exactly  a  foresight,  but  a  sort  of  shadowy 
anticipation  of  a  general  result.f  And  along  with  this 
anticipation  there  may  be,  also,  very  elementary  motive 
factors.  However  that  may  be,  the  facts  remain  that 
in  the  animal  series  from  the  lowest  order  up  to  man 
there  are  inherited  functions  which  operate  in  a  quasi 
mechanical  way.  "  No  agreement  has  so  far  been 
reached,  as  regards  either  the  definition  of  instinct,  or 
its  place  in  the  hierarchy  of  human  actions ;  but  it  seems 
safe  to  say  that  the  instinctive  movement,  whatever  else 
it  may  be,  is  always  initiated  by  the  release  of  an  in- 
herited disposition;  that  the  distinctive  consciousness  re- 
sembles the  impulsive  but  is  richer  in  organic  compo- 
nents ;  and  that  there  is  a  very  close  connection  between 
instinctive  and  emotive  reactions."  $  On  the  physio- 
logical side  the  instincts  are  closely  related  to  the  reflex 
actions.  A  reflex  action  is  seen  in  such  a  simple  thing 
as  the  striking  of  the  nerve  below  the  knee-cap  and 
the  resulting  jerk  of  the  member;  or,  in  the  flash  of 
light  which  makes  the  eyes  blink.  It  is  the  simplest  sort 
of  nervous  reaction.  If  the  head  is  removed  from  a 

*"  Principles   of   Psychology,"   Vol.   II,  p.   383. 

\Brit.  Jour,  of  PsychoL,  3,  p.  227. 

j  E.  B.  Titchener :  "  A  Text-book  of  Psychology,"  p.  462. 


ACTION  TYPES  119 

frog  and  a  bit  of  acid  touches  his  body  he  reaches  up 
and  brushes  the  acid  off  with  a  foot ;  if  that  foot  be  held, 
then  he  uses  another.  Reflex  actions  in  human  beings 
are  such  things  as  coughing,  sneezing,  smiling,  swallow- 
ing. These  acts  are  done  in  a  mechanical  way.  It  is 
a  case  of  touch-and-go ;  pull  the  trigger  and  the  nervous 
system  does  the  rest.  By  sensible  gradations  we  pass 
from  these  mechanical  performances  to  more  complex 
actions,  which  we  see  first  in  children ;  such  as  crouching 
or  running  in  the  presence  of  a  strange  person  or  ob- 
ject. I  have  seen  a  baby,  not  a  year  old,  flinch  when  a 
towel  was  thrown  across  the  room,  it  had  never  been 
struck  with  anything,  had  never  been  threatened,  scolded 
or  roughly  handled;  the  flinching  was  the  expression  of 
its  organism  in  the  presence  of  a  menace.  Children 
exhibit  many  instinctive  traits  such  as  crying  when  they 
are  in  pain,  or  when  they  are  hungry;  or  turning  the 
head  away  in  order  to  reject  something  that  displeases 
them,  or  in  order  to  avoid  seeing  a  stranger,  whose  pres- 
ence seems  to  inspire  in  them  bashfulness.  The  early 
efforts  to  walk  and  to  speak  and,  above  all,  to  imitate, 
certainly  run  back  in  their  heritage  through  many  gen- 
erations. As  the  child  becomes  older  the  instinct  of 
self-preservation  shows  itself  in  a  disposition  to  fight  or, 
as  has  often  been  pointed  out,  in  the  hunting  instinct  of 
boys.  Social  instincts  also  grow  up  which  make  for 
friendships,  gathering  into  groups  or  "  gangs."  Even  curi- 
osity and  the  disposition  to  display  one's  self  or  one's 
possessions,  and  the  counter  dispositions  of  modesty  and 
reticence  may  go  back  to  instinctive  roots. 

All  these  instinctive  traits  run  through  various  types 
of  human  nature ;  but  they  undoubtedly  bulk  larger  in 
some  types  than  in  others.  "  The  human  mind  has  cer- 


120  THE  SECTS 

tain  innate  or  inherited  tendencies,  which  are  the  essen- 
tial springs  or  motive  powers  of  all  thought  and  action, 
whether  individual  or  collective,  and  are  the  bases  from 
which  the  character  and  will  of  individuals  and  of  na- 
tions are  gradually  developed  under  the  guidance  of  the 
intellectual  faculties.  These  primary  innate  tendencies 
have  different  relative  strengths  in  the  native  constitu- 
tions of  the  individuals  of  different  races,  and  they  are 
favoured  or  checked  at  very  different  degrees  by  the 
very  different  social  circumstances  of  men  in  different 
stages  of  culture;  but  they  are  probably  common  to  the 
men  of  every  race  and  of  every  age."  *  Of  course, 
among  primitive  people  these  modes  of  behaviour  are 
much  more  conspicuous  than  among  civilized  men. 
Civilization  imposes  uniformity.  It  requires  certain 
courses  of  conduct  which  are  complex  and  have  been 
evolved  and  established  by  the  men  of  intellectual  types. 
Another  sort  of  action-quality  in  human  nature  is 
Imitation.  We  have  alluded  to  it  as  a  form  of  instinct; 
and  so,  undoubtedly,  it  is  in  the  early  stages  of  life. 
Such  responses  as  the  smile  an  infant  gives  in  return 
for  a  smile,  or  a  blow  in  return  for  a  blow,  or  the  at- 
tempt to  repeat  what  he  has  heard  are  probably  in- 
stinctive. Another  form  of  imitative  action  appears  in 
its  pathological  aspect  in  hypnotism,  where  the  subject 
acts  upon  the  suggestion  of  the  operator.  It  appears 
also  when  the  attention  is  very  much  concentrated  and 
inhibition  lowered.  When  Webster  spoke  in  Faneuil 
Hall  so  intense  were  his  hearers  that,  with  the  swaying 
of  the  speaker's  body,  the  hearers  swayed  too.  An  im- 
passioned leader  may  so  arouse  his  hearers  and  so  ab- 

* Wm.  J^£52H^lLi  " An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology," 
p.  19. 


ACTION  TYPES  121 

sorb  their  attention  that  they  follow  him  without  carry- 
ing on  their  customary  mental  habits.  Imitation  of 
some  skilful  pianist,  or  craftsman,  or  writer,  which  is 
deliberate  and  painstaking  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
imitation  of  the  instinctive  type.  In  the  latter  we  find 
a  characteristic  quality  of  a  certain  class  of  people.  It 
is  a  characteristic  of  those  who  find  action  easier  than 
deliberation;  they  do  not  wish  to  think  around  a  subject 
or  to  think  their  way  through  it,  they  simply  want  a 
certain  result  and  they  go  as  directly  for  it  as  they  can. 
They  find  that  it  is  much  easier  to  accomplish  their 
purpose  by  mechanically  doing  what  they  have  seen 
others  do  than  by  attempting  any  original  method.  They 
imitate  others  in  the  way  they  earn  a  livelihood,  in  the 
way  they  conduct  their  lives,  in  the  manner  they  dress, 
in  the  thoughts  they  entertain  and  even  in  the  emotions 
which  move  them. 

In  this  same  type  of  nature  may  be  found  those  who 
easily  follow  an  instinct  and  mould  it  into  a  habit. 
Whatever  proves  successful  they  cling  to  and  repeat. 
There  is  no  intelligent  direction  of  trials,  the  trial  that 
happens  to  meet  their  requirements  is  good  enough  for 
them.  They  settle  upon  one  way  of  doing  things  and 
never  think  of  departing  from  it. 

Because  action  is  so  much  more  congenial  than  delib- 
eration such  folk  are  very  susceptible  to  suggestion. 
It  is  hard  for  them  to  originate  ideas,  and  when  they  do 
originate  them  the  ideas  are  often  of  such  unreliable 
character  that  they  do  not  inspire  confidence.  An  idea 
which  comes  from  without  often  appeals  to  them  with 
more  cogency  than  anything  which  arises  in  their  own 
minds.  With  their  touch-and-go  nature  the  presence  of 
an  idea  means  its  performance  if  possible.  It  is  enough 


122  THE  SECTS 

to  suggest,  they  instinctively  carry  out  the  suggestion. 

The  prominence  of  these  traits,  which  I  have  called 
"  Action  Traits,"  gives  rise  to  a  very  familiar  type  of 
human  nature.  It  comprises  those  who  might  be  called 
the  psychologically  poor;  their  principal  endowments 
being  those  which  served  humanity  in  its  earlier  stages 
of  growth.  The  finer  feelings  and  the  intellectual  ca- 
pacities, which  have  led  the  human  race  into  civiliza- 
tion by  the  control  of  these  inherited  propensities,  are 
not  dominant  in  this  type.  It  is  the  class  one  encounters 
so  often  among  "  the  masses  " ;  not  that  the  masses  are 
comprised  entirely  of  such  a  type,  or  that  the  poor  are 
poor  because  of  lack  of  higher  endowments;  for  there 
are  many  in  the  greater  mass  of  poor  who  are  so  be- 
cause of  injustices  in  the  social  order.  But,  among 
those  who  are  natively  poor  and  who  under  the  most 
fortunate  circumstances  would  not  be  able  to  avail 
themselves  of  their  opportunities  we  find  the  type  de- 
scribed. 

A  man  chosen  at  random  from  this  class  will  not  be 
a  skilled  workman,  he  has  left  school  for  something 
more  congenial  after  he  obtained  the  rudiments  of  an 
education,  and  he  has  picked  up  such  jobs  as  he  could. 
He  seldom  becomes  a  master  workman  except  where 
dexterity  alone  counts.  He  does  not  look  ahead  and 
plan,  he  lives  for  the  present.  He  has  learned  his  occu- 
pation by  imitating  others.  If  he  succeeds  in  follow- 
ing a  trade  he  does  so  by  imitating  others.  He  prefers 
outdoor  occupations,  and  insists  upon  an  occupation 
which  calls  for  action.  He  is  restive  and  impatient 
when  obliged  to  live  a  sedentary  life. 

In  his  social  life  he  finds  his  recreation  in  almost  any 
amusement  which  does  not  call  for  intellectual  effort. 


ACTION  TYPES  123 

A  "  problem  play  "  has  no  attraction  for  him.  He  pre- 
fers the  circus  or  a  vaudeville.  His  reading  must  startle 
him  sufficiently  to  hold  his  attention.  He  prefers  yellow 
journalism  above  all  else  with  its  panorama  of  suicide, 
murder,  divorce  and  sporting  news.  Music  attracts  him 
if  it  is  lively  and  tuneful,  but  nothing  approaching  an 
opera  appeals  to  him.  Anything  which  makes  for  re- 
finement he  considers  snobbish  and  unmanly,  his  atti- 
tude is  very  much  like  that  of  a  boy  towards  a  girl's 
interests.  As  for  his  inner  life,  it  is  ordered  by  no 
intellectual  control,  he  does  not  keep  his  attention  upon 
any  problem  very  long,  and  never  upon  a  problem 
which  is  not  concrete.  Abstract  questions,  are  as  far 
beyond  him  as  interstellar  space.  If  he  plans  a  house 
it  is  a  very  simple  plan.  Mathematics  have  nothing  to 
do  with  it.  His  attention  goes  immediately  to  things 
tangible,  or  seen,  or  heard;  it  is  not  held  by  any  tight 
train  of  thought.  When  he  reasons  he  does  so  by 
presenting  illustrations  and  examples,  but  he  does  not 
follow  the  thread  of  argument  upon  which  the  illustra- 
tions hang.  He  is  willing  to  talk,  and  talk  a  great  deal ; 
but  uses  emphasis  for  argument.  His  philosophy  of  life 
is  gathered  from  his  surroundings.  His  own  experience 
is  perplexing,  for  he  has  acted  as  he  has  felt  prompted, 
without  plan  or  deliberation.  When  he  succeeded  he  did 
not  see  just  why  it  was  that  success  came  to  him  and 
when  he  failed  he  did  not  trace  the  line  of  cause  and 
effect.  The  world  is  not  one  orderly  sequence  of  cause 
and  effect,  but  is  as  sporadic  as  his  impulses,  to  him. 
So  he  finds  certain  days  are  the  best  ones  on  which 
to  bet,  and  that  he  gets  sick  "  only  on  a  Wednesday,"  that 
it  pays  to  carry  a  lucky  stone,  that  every  time  he  walks 
under  a  ladder,  or  opens  an  umbrella  in  the  house,  his 


124  THE  SECTS 

wife  gets  sick.  Men,  in  his  judgment,  are  actuated  by 
very  direct  and  obvious  motives.  They  are  against  him 
"  trying  to  do  him/'  or  "  he  stands  in  with  them."  The 
judicial  frame  of  mind  is  an  eagle's  flight  above  his 
imagination. 

The  religious  life  of  such  a  type  is  in  conformity  with 
all  the  rest  of  his  life.  The  ideas  which  underlie  his 
religious  belief  have  been  taken  from  others.  He  ac- 
cepts without  criticism  the  theology  of  his  church.  He 
imitates  others  in  religion  as  he  does  in  his  work.  He 
goes  to  church  as  he  has  been  taught  to  do,  it  is  habit. 
At  church  he  goes  through  the  forms  which  everyone  else 
goes  through,  without  question.  However,  only  a  cer- 
tain form  of  service  appeals  to  him  at  all;  it  must  be  a 
form  in  which  he  can  do  something.  A  service  com- 
posed largely  of  an  address  which  appeals  to  the  in- 
telligence is  intolerable  to  him,  and  it  is  impossible  for 
him  to  gather  inspiration  for  the  week's  work  from 
the  ideas  imbibed  from  a  sermon.  Thinking  is  not  his 
specialty,  his  whole  life  is  action.  If  he  can  do  some- 
thing, then  he  participates  in  the  service.  Let  him  rise, 
sit,  bow,  kneel,  cross  himself,  make  audible  responses, 
protect  himself  with  holy  water,  and  he  can  enter  into 
the  spirit  of  the  service.  A  confessional  where  one 
confesses  aloud  in  the  presence  of  an  objective  being 
enables  him  to  get  some  grip  upon  his  moral  nature; 
but  he  could  not  in  the  quiet  of  his  room,  alone,  un- 
assisted, lift  his  thoughts  to  God  and  maintain  his  at- 
tention in  prayer. 

The  Roman  Church  evolved  from  the  needs  of  this 
type  of  nature.  When  Christianity  spread  through  Eu- 
rope it  had  to  adapt  itself  by  taking  on  a  number  of 
the  traits  of  the  religions  which  it  supplanted;  certain 


ACTION  TYPES  125 

festivals  were  retained,  certain  customs  could  not  be 
entirely  obliterated  and  many  ideas  had  to  be  incorpo- 
rated in  this  new  religion.  Man  found  in  the  saints 
substitutions  for  their  deities.  It  is  easy  to  think  of 
a  saint  and  to  look  to  a  saint,  who  is  little  higher  than 
one's  self,  for  help.  A  Catholic  friend  of  mine  recently 
told  another  friend  if  he  would  find  a  house  to  ask 
St.  Anthony  to  help  him,  as  St.  Anthony  had  proven 
a  help  before  in  just  such  an  emergency.  The  rela- 
tions between  man  and  the  Unseen  must  be  as  simple 
as  possible,  there  must  be  things  to  do  which  count  in 
the  unseen  world.  There  should  be  days  set  apart  for 
certain  things,  days  when  one  should  not  eat  certain 
things,  weeks  for  special  observations,  beads  which  can 
be  taken  in  the  hand  and  counted  as  one  communes  with 
the  Unseen.  In  short,  there  must  be  numerous  ways  in 
which  the  Unseen  can  be  made  real.  For  this  type 
reality  is  found  by  doing  something,  not  by  reasoning. 

Of  course,  the  Church  of  Rome  does  not  supply  the 
only  form  of  worship  for  this  type,  though  its  evolu- 
tion has  been  in  conformity  with  such  demands.  The 
usual  Protestant  form  of  worship,  with  the  emphasis 
upon  the  sermon,  probably  cannot  be  used;  but  the 
Protestant  ideals  and  purposes  could  certainly  be  adapted 
to  the  psychological  demands  of  the  so-called  masses. 
Where  such  an  adaptation  has  been  attempted  the  re- 
sults promise  well.  The  Salvation  Army  with  its  march- 
ing, its  music,  its  exhortation,  its  participation  in  speak- 
ing, and  its  numerous  practical  activities  have  enabled  it 
to  appeal  to  much  the  same  class  of  people. 

An  excellent  hint  is  given  to  the  Protestant  churches 
by  the  numerous  fraternal  orders  which  have  grown  up 
in  the  last  few  years;  for  in  many  of  these  organiza- 


126  THE  SECTS 

tions  there  is  a  religious  life  which  consists  very  largely 
in  doing  something.  Indeed,  these  orders  have  cut 
deeply  into  the  church  membership,  and  many  com- 
plaints are  heard  in  church  circles  concerning  the  com- 
petition of  the  fraternities.  Why  not  follow  such  an 
excellent  example  and  attract  this  type  of  individual  by 
enabling  them  to  express  their  religious  life  in  action? 

The  institutional  churches  in  many  of  the  large  cities 
have  attempted  to  put  into  practice  the  principles  men- 
tioned. Many  men  have  started  their  religious  interest 
in  discussions  concerning  labour  and  capital  held  in  the 
men's  meetings  of  such  churches.  It  *seems\a  far  cry 
from  the  heated  discussions  of  politics  and  economics  to 
the  quiet  of  the  devotional  hour,  but  when  the  type  of 
man  we  are  considering  has  formed  a  habit  of  going  to 
some  one  meeting  place  he  will  go  to  meetings  whose 
interest  may  be  far  removed  from  his  own.  So  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  see  a  number  of  men  in  one  of  the  popu- 
lar evening  services  of  the  institutional  churches  who 
throughout  their  childhood  and,  perhaps,  early  manhood, 
never  entered  a  church.  The  question  one  often  hears  from 
these  men  is,  "  Well,  what  can  the  Church  do  for  me  ? " 
That  sounds  selfish;  but  we  must  remember  that  these 
men  are  hard  pressed  by  the  hard  circumstances  of  life. 
When  a  genuine  interest  in  their  welfare  is  shown  in  a 
way  that  they  can  understand  and  a  genuine  friendship 
is  shown  similar  to  the  friendships  they  do  understand, 
their  question  is  satisfactorily  answered  for  them. 

The  Protestant  churches  have  been  trying  to  meet  this 
difficult  situation  for  a  number  of  years.  Many  of  them 
have  laid  such  great  emphasis  on  their  social  work  that 
the  devotional  side  of  church  life  has  suffered.  The 
solution  must  be  found  not  simply  in  attracting  large 


ACTION  TYPES  127 

numbers  of  people  to  the  church  building,  but  in  in- 
spiring these  people  with  some  sort  of  religious  life.  As 
a  matter  of  history  the  Protestant  Church  has  had 
largely  to  deal  with  a  type  different  from  that  we  are 
discussing.  The  followers  of  Luther  were  people  who 
were  attracted  by  the  appeal  to  their  conscience  and  in- 
telligence. Calvin's  followers  were  appealed  to  largely 
through  the  intelligence,  and  the  same  might  be  said 
of  Zwingli's  adherents.  The  history  of  Protestantism 
is  full  of  advance  inspired  by  thoughtful  leaders  and 
worked  out  by  intelligent  people.  The  issue  at  present 
is  simply  this:  How  can  the  Protestant  churches  with 
their  heritage  meet  the  needs  of  a  type  which  has  hitherto 
been  so  successfully  reached  by  the  Catholic  Church? 
From  the  present  study  several  things  are  obvious;  the 
first  is  that  the  service  itself  should  be  adapted  to  this 
type;  the  second  is  that  habits  of  church-going  should 
be  acquired  early ;  the  third,  some  social  pressure  should 
be  exerted,  the  custom  made  popular  and  attractive  so 
that  Imitation  may  do  its  good  work. 

Under  the  heading,  Action  Types,  another  class  of 
people  should  be  considered,  a  class  which  occupies 
a  very  'different  position  in  the  social  scale  from  that 
which  we  have  just  studied.  Instinct  within,  Imitation 
without,  were  largely  responsible  for  the  behaviour  of/ 
the  first  type.  In  this  second  type  instinct  and  imita— < 
tion  play  a  very  small  part  while  intelligence  plays 
quite  a  prominent  part.  It  is  the  type  we  are  familiar 
with  in  many  American  business  men,  practical  men, 
men  of  action,  men  who  claim  that  they  are  men  of 
achievement  rather  than  men  of  reflection  and  delibera- 
tion. I  group  them  in  this  chapter  because  action  seems 
the  most  eminent  of  their  traits. 


128  THE  SECTS 

They  are  doers,  not  thinkers,  though,  of  course,  it 
would  be  wrong  to  say  they  do  not  think  their  way 
to  action.  The  emphasis,  however,  is  upon  action,  ac- 
complishment. Sentiment  has  no  part  to  play  in  their 
life  work.  They  are  governed  by  rigid  facts  of  life 
in  a  practical  world.  If,  in  the  beginning  of  their  active 
careers,  they  carried  sentiment  into  their  activities,  they 
quickly  learned  it  had  no  place  and  no  purpose.  Fur- 
thermore, they  do  not  believe  in  too  much  deliberation. 
Results  are  what  count  with  them.  Think  quickly  and 
accurately  and  then  act,  is  their  motto.  After  all,  it  is 
not  the  thinking  that  counts,  but  the  result  of  the  action. 
Such  a  man  recently  told  me  that  he  wished  he  had 
never  taken  a  college  course,  for  the  habit  of  weighing 
and  balancing  acquired  in  college  work  was  a  positive 
detriment  in  business.  While  he  was  weighing  the  merits 
of  a  course  of  conduct,  someone  else  went  ahead  and 
did  what  he  was  thinking  about.  We  are  very  fond  of 
saying  that  it  is  the  practical  man  who  has  reared  the 
great  cities,  and  covered  the  continent  with  roads  and 
irrigated  the  wastes  of  arid  soil,  and,  indeed,  accom- 
plished all  the  things  about  which  America  boasts.  How 
often  the  thinking  man  is  crowded  aside  by  the  dis- 
tinctively practical  man !  It  is  a  common  experience  for 
one  man  to  make  an  important  invention  and  a  man 
of  a  distinctively  different  type  to  make  the  money  out 
of  the  patent.  One  of  the  best  informed,  most  widely 
read  lawyers  in  Wall  Street  was  drawing  a  salary  of 
$1,200  a  year,  a  few  years  ago;  while  one  of  the  most 
energetic,  but  not  most  intelligent,  lawyers  was  employ- 
ing him  and  making  large  sums  out  of  his  employee's  in- 
telligence. It  is,  then,  to  the  practical  type  that  the 
average  business  man  is  tending.  He  may  have  a  splen- 


ACTION  TYPES  129 

did  symmetrical  nature.  He  may  be  a  patron  of  art, 
lover  of  music  and  a  devoutly  religious  man,  and  he 
may  carry  these  finer  feelings  with  him  throughout  life. 
Indeed,  a  number  of  the  greatest  captains  of  industry 
have  been  just  such  well-balanced  men.  However,  it 
requires  a  splendid  strength  of  character  to  maintain 
these  traits  and  men  not  strongly  endowed  with  them 
are  very  apt  to  lose  them  entirely,  or  to  reserve  only 
their  finer  feelings  for  their  home  and  their  children. 
If  we  take  a  typical  example  of  this  class  of  men  we 
find  a  man  who  is  rarely  affected  by  any  appeal  to  his 
emotions,  who  is  never  sentimental  and  who,  from  the 
constant  exercise  of  faculties  which  deal  with  purely 
practical  things,  becomes  rather  mechanical  in  his  think- 
ing and  acting.  For  years  he  has  habituated  himself 
to  collecting  facts,  arranging  them  and  acting  on  them 
without  any  guesswork  and  without  taking  any  chances. 
It  is  a  hard  matter-of-fact  world  with  which  he  deals 
and,  though  he  may  at  times  be  disposed  to  yield  to  the 
promptings  of  his  feelings,  the  demands  of  life  quickly 
over-ride  any  such  disposition. 

The  religion  of  such  a  type  is  characteristic.  The 
emotional  nature,  which  plays  a  central  part  in  religion, 
plays  little  part  in  his  life.  He  is  impatient  with  any- 
thing that  seeks  to  affect  him  through  his  feelings.  The 
service  of  the  average  church  has  little  in  it  to  attract 
him.  He  does  not  believe  in  "  talkers/'  he  "  doesn't 
trust  them,"  the  men  he  meets  who  talk  a  great  deal 
accomplish  a  very  little.  He  naturally  looks  down  upon 
a  professional  preacher.  The  only  sort  of  a  sermon  that 
appeals  to  him  is  a  practical  sermon,  dealing  with  things 
he  knows  and  handles.  A  great  cathedral  with  its  lofty 
columns  and  stained-glass  windows  does  not  inspire  him 


130  THE  SECTS 

to  sit  and  think  and  pray.  It  bores  him.  The  symbols 
seem  foolish,  the  ritual  seems  trivial,  the  whole  thing  is 
stupid.  Among  these  men  one  often  hears  such  ex- 
pressions as :  "  My  religion  is  common  honesty,"  or, 
"  My  creed  is  simply  the  laws  of  the  land,"  or,  "  My 
religion  consists  in  helping  the  fellow  who  is  down." 
Religion  for  these  men  must  be  something  which  enters 
into  their  lives  as  they  are  lived  in  the  practical  hustle 
of  every-day  business.  If  they  can  see  a  man  who  deals 
honestly  with  his  fellow-man  and  shows  leniency  to  the 
unfortunate  and  abides  by  the  law,  they  admire  his 
religion.  If  they  see  a  church  which  is  raising  the  moral 
life  of  a  community  and  reaching  out  to  help  all  classes 
of  people,  they  will  be  willing  to  assist  it,  and  will  oc- 
casionally attend  the  services. 

There  is  no  sect  composed  of  such  a  type,  predomi- 
nately. This  is  exceedingly  strange.  Christ  was  dis- 
tinctly practical.  He  gave  the  world  no  system  of 
theology,  though  innumerable  attempts  have  been  made 
to  fashion  theology  out  of  what  He  said  and  did. 
These  attempts  have  given  rise  to  innumerable  sects. 
He  did,  however,  give  a  very  clear-cut  and  intelligible 
system  of  conduct.  He  who  runs  may  read  and  under- 
stand what  Christ  would  have  him  do;  yet  no  sect  has 
ever  grown  up  upon  Christ's  system  of  conduct.  -  Iso- 
lated actions  of  the  Master  have  given  rise  to  feet- 
washing  sects,  baptizing  sects,  fasting  sects  and  what 
not.  This  seems  unintelligible  at  first,  but  when  we 
remember  that  the  religious  nature  must  have  its  tap- 
roots in  emotion,  an  explanation  presents  itself  why  the 
religion  which  has  accomplished  our  civilization  has  not 
yet  given  birth  to  a  sect  which  does  not  seek  first  to 
satisfy  the  claims  of  the  heart. 


ACTION  TYPES  131 

It  would  be  hard,  indeed,  to  form  a  church  of  this 
purely  practical  type.  The  best  we  may  hope  from  it  is 
to  attract  men  to  the  church  in  their  earlier  years  and 
to  hold  them  by  keeping  their  finer  natures  alive  and 
by  engaging  them  in  practical  ethical  work  among  their 
fellows. 

In  this  chapter  on  Action  Types  we  may  well  con- 
sider two  rather  scattering  types  of  individuals.  Be- 
fore we  attempt  to  describe  them  it  will  be  profitable 
to  look  into  the  psychology  of  action.  It  is  commonly 
held  among  psychologists  to-day  that  every  thought  tends 
to  express  itself  in  some  form  of  action.  This  is  not 
always  obvious.  Many  actions  are  so  minute  that  they 
escape  observation  entirely.  The  principle,  however,  is 
very  familiar  in  a  number  of  experiences.  When  the 
novice  first  attempts  to  ride  a  bicycle  he  discovers  a 
strong  disposition  to  steer  into  objects  he  wishes  to 
avoid.  When  he  thinks  of  the  tree,  or  the  ditch,  or  the 
wall  he  finds  himself  steering  into  it.  A  very  pretty 
demonstration  is  given  with  the  automata  graph.  It 
consists  in  letting  the  hand  rest  lightly  upon  a  surface 
which  moves  easily  with  every  minute  movement  of  the 
hand.  These  movements  are  traced  out  upon  a  piece 
of  smoked  paper.  When  a  story  is  read  describing  the 
movements  of  the  hearer  it  will  be  found  that  he  has 
unintentionally  moved  his  hand  in  the  direction  his 
thought  has  followed.  This,  of  course,  is  the  explana- 
tion of  muscle-reading.  Another  way  in  which  thoughts 
tend  to  express  themselves  in  actions  is  by  a  quickening 
of  the  heart,  or  of  the  breathing,  or  in  the  vaso-motor 
system.  These  may  be  studied  in  the  psychological 
laboratories.  When  an  action  results  immediately  from 
a  thought  it  is  said  to  be  an  idio-motor  action,  i.e.,  the 


132  THE  SECTS 

person  acts  immediately  upon  an  impression.  Many  of 
our  actions  are  idio-motor;  for  example,  when  walking 
and  conversing  with  a  friend,  as  an  acquaintance  passes, 
one  automatically  raises  his  hat.  There  is  no  thought  in 
the  action,  there  is  simply  the  sight  of  a  friend  which 
touches  off  the  automatic  movement.  As  I  sit  discussing 
a  question  with  a  student,  the  wind  blows  the  paper  on 
my  table,  I  move  a  paper-weight  over  to  hold  the 
paper  down,  I  give  no  thought  to  the  action  at  all,  and 
a  few  minutes  later  could  not  tell  whether  I  had  made 
such  a  movement  or  not.  All  through  life  we  find  this 
idio-motor  activity  behaviour  as  an  ever-present  servant. 

Very  unlike  this  idio-motor  activity  is  the  long  and 
careful  deliberation  which  never  results  in  any  course 
of  conduct.  In  this  one  reason  is  set  over  against  an- 
other and  the  moment  of  acting  is  continuously  post- 
poned. 

Now  between  these  two  extremes,  the  touch-and-go 
and  the  merely  deliberative,  we  find  many  gradations. 
There  are,  however,  two  general  types  of  behaviour:  in 
the  first  there  is  a  disposition  to  act  before  mature 
deliberation.  Such  persons  are  like  the  old-fashioned 
musket  that  occasionally  went  off  before  there  was  time 
to  prime  it — much  less  to  aim  it.  They  act  first  and 
think  afterwards,  if  at  all.  They  are  impulsive;  thought 
and  action  are  close-coupled.  People  of  this  type  speak 
their  minds  before  their  minds  are  well  made  up;  they 
rise  and  speak  at  meetings  before  they  have  matured 
their  thoughts.  Nothing  is  so  unpleasant  to  them  as  the 
suspense  occasioned  by  weighing  and  balancing  reasons, 
they  become  very  impatient  with  waiting.  They  would 
far  rather  hazard  an  action  than  hold  to  their  delibera- 
tions. Every  church  is  apt  to  be  afflicted  with  people 


ACTION  TYPES  133 

of  this  description.  They  lead  forlorn  causes,  start  im- 
possible movements,  attempt  the  impracticable.  How- 
ever, those  churches  where  there  is  something  doing 
all  the  time  afford  a  more  attractive  field  for  their 
talents. 

A  very  different  type  is  presented  in  that  class  which 
tends  to  think  long  and  seriously,  but  never  to  act.  To 
them  an  action  means  a  commitment  to  some  cause 
about  which  they  cannot  decide.  Frequently  when  they 
do  come  to  a  decision  it  is  after  being  spurred  by  some 
outward  stimulus ;  or  they  may  become  weary  of  their 
irresolution  and  act  in  defiance  of  their  disposition.  Of 
such  are  the  "  well  wishers  "  which  are  to  be  found  in 
all  churches,  they  wish  everyone  well,  they  wish  every- 
thing well,  they  are  willing  to  pray  without  ceasing;  but 
they  seldom  make  their  influence  felt  by  their  conduct. 
To  these  people  those  denominations  that  lay  great  em- 
phasis upon  the  thought-life  and  little  emphasis  upon 
practical  life  are  most  congenial. 

There  are,  then,  very  diverse  types  to  be  classed  under 
the  head  of  Action  Types.  One  class  we  find  constitut- 
ing a  very  large  proportion  of  the  greatest  sect  in  the 
country.  Another  class  we  find  constituting  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  non-church  goers.  And  the  smaller 
classes  we  find  scattered  throughout  all  denominations, 
but  tending  to  gravitate  where  their  particular  tempera- 
ments are  most  comfortable. 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES 

THE  term  experiential  is  intended  to  describe  all 
those  religious  events  in  life  which  make  pro- 
found impressions  (because  of  their  intimate 
personal  character)  and  which  are  invariably  associ- 
ated with  the  emotions.  To  experience,  etymologically, 
is  to  go  through.  Everyone  appreciates  the  significance 
of  the  expression  "  to  go  through  "  an  ordeal  or  a  trial. 
A  religious  experience  which  one  goes  through  is  some- 
thing more  than  the  quiet  growth  into  the  religious  life 
from  a  non-religious  life,  such  as  many  excellent  Chris- 
tians have  had.  In  church  circles  a  religious  experience 
implies  a  period  during  which  one's  nature  is  aroused 
in  a  characteristic  way.  The  deliberate  argument  which 
a  man  may  quietly  and  calmly  hold  with  himself  and 
which  may  lead  him  to  change  his  whole  course  of  con- 
duct is  not  a  religious  experience.  The  stillness  of  a 
starlight  night  which  quiets  the  mind  and  arouses  the 
feelings  of  wonder  and  reverence  can  so  impress  a  man 
that  his  whole  life  is  guided  thereafter  by  what  he  be- 
lieves are  God's  purposes  instead  of  selfish  ones.  That 
would  be  a  religious  experience.  This  is  not  the  place 
to  compare  the  relative  worth  of  the  emotional  and  in- 
tellectual influences  which  operate  to  arouse  the  spiritual 
nature.  All  that  we  need  to  do  here  is  to  note  that 
the  religious  experience  is  associated  with  the  feelings 

134 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  135 

and  that  it  is  impossible  without  them.  Indeed,  any 
profound  experience  is  impossible  without  them. 

It  is  a  very  true  truism  that  "  no  one  lives  his  whole 
life  above  his  collar"!  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
"  thinking  machine  "  outside  of  fiction.  Hard-headed 
people  may  be  contrasted  with  soft-hearted  people. 
Cold-blooded  logicians  may  be  the  antitheses  of  high- 
spirited  artists.  Nevertheless,  be  the  logician's  head 
ever  so  hard  and  his  blood  ever  so  frigid,  he  is  not  com- 
pletely devoid  of  feeling.  Perhaps  his  feelings  may  be 
thinned  out  and  attenuated  in  the  estimation  of  more 
emotional  natures,  but  some  "  feeling  "  remains.  Such 
"  feelings "  may  evidence  themselves  in  the  so-called 
"  intellectual  sentiments  " ;  that  is,  in  the  pleasure  de- 
rived from  doing  intellectual  work,  in  appreciating  the 
unity  and  balance  of  a  problem,  in  the  satisfaction  of 
intellectual  triumphs  attained.  When  all  emotion  is 
gone  life  has  gone.  It  is  the  time-honoured  custom  of 
comparing  emotion  and  intelligence,  of  setting  one  over 
against  the  other,  of  accentuating  the  absence  of  one 
and  the  presence  of  the  other,  which  has  led  to  a  popu- 
lar confusion  and  to  the  fallacy  that  some  people  are 
entirely  feelingless^  Certainly,  there  are  people  in  whom 
some  of  the  feelings  and  sentiments,  which  are  proper 
to  wholesome  natural  lives,  are  absent.  Still,  that  is  a 
distinctly  different  thing  from  a  life  insensible  to  any 
affective  influences^ 

When  anyone  "  takes  stock "  of  life  and  raises  the 
old  question  whether  it  is  worth  living  or  not,  the  re- 
sults of  his  meditations  are  always  set  down  in  terms  of 
feeling !  For  what  are  happiness,  contentment,  the  satis- 
faction of  achievement,  but  feeling?  Life  may  have 
innumerable  hours  which  are  colourless  and  insipid; 


136  THE  SECTS 

these  we  ignore.  It  is  the  moment  of  pain,  of  grief  or  of 
delight  which  rises  up  and  is  counted  in  our  computa- 
tion. Whether  the  Heaven  of  the  Christian  with  its 
appeal  to  the  best  things  in  human  nature,  or  the  Heaven 
of  the  Moslem,  with  its  appeal  to  the  sensuous  nature, 
stands  before  the  mind  as  the  "  summum  bonum  "  of 
all  existence,  the  appeal  is  to  the  feelings.  Many  sys- 
tems of  philosophy  and  ethics  unravel  into  an  appeal  to 
man's  desire  for  happiness ;  which,  psychologically  inter- 
preted, means  an  appeal  to  the  emotions.  All  of  which 
spells  the  character  of  life  in  terms  of  emotion. 

Now,  this  presence  and  permeation  of  the  emotional 
nature  in  one's  life  of  thought  and  action  does  not  seem 
to  the  average  man  an  actuality.  To  the  unsophisti- 
cated the  routine  of  life  runs  its  even  course  without 
much  stir  of  the  feelings.  Only  when  an  incident  calls 
up  anger,  fear,  patriotic  fervour,  gratitude,  amusement 
or  some  other  unusual  excitement,  does  he  realize  he  is 
an  emotional  creature.  But,  in  reality,  the  train  of  his 
thoughts  is  constantly  directed  by  feeling.  If  he  pauses 
to  consider  them  it  is  obvious  that  he  does  not  think  of 
his  future  grave,  of  his  wife's  death,  or  his  children's 
possible  dishonour  and  a  myriad  of  similar  sinister 
things  for  the  simple  reason  that  he  does  not  like  to. 
It  is  a  matter  of  feeling.  This  is  much  more  apparent 
in  the  twists  and  turns  of  a  conversation.  Here  "  the 
things  that  interest "  him  are  taken  up  and  talked  over ; 
which  are  also  matters  of  taste,  of  feeling.  When  he 
has  to  think  about  or  discuss  uncongenial  subjects  he 
is  fully  aware  of  the  feeling  of  aversion. 

So  feelings  of  all  sorts  run  through  everyone's  life. 
They  are  not  the  same  with  all  people,  nor  are  they  the 
same  throughout  life  for  any  one  person.  The  experi- 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  137 

ences  of  life  take  their  shape  and  are  largely  determined 
by  the  amount  of  feeling  and  the  kind  of  feeling  with 
which  a  man  is  natively  endowed.  Before  trying  to 
understand  the  different  kinds  of  religious  experiences, 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  some  of  the  characteristics 
of  man's  emotional  nature. 

An  interesting  classification  of  the  emotions  appears 
in  a  recent  work  in  psychology.* 

"  A  persistent  feeling,  although  not  unduly  strong,  may 
yet  be  properly  characterized  as  an  emotion.  ...  In 
this  case  we  experience  a  mood.  It  is  a  continued  feel- 
ing of  pleasantness  or  unpleasantness,  or  restlessness  or 
quiescence.  It  colours  the  whole  of  our  consciousness, 
cognitive  as  well  as  affective,  for  a  period  of  time.  We 
have  times  of  depression  when  no  good  fortune  counts 
for  much  and  when  any  bad  luck  casts  us  into  the  depths 
of  despondency.  And  again  we  have  periods  of  cheer- 
fulness when  even  a  serious  misfortune  seems  trivial. 
These  moods  are  characteristic  of  what  is  called  the 
temperament.  There  are  three  readily  distinguishable 
grades  of  intensity  in  emotion;  moods,  ordinary  emo- 
tions and  passions.  A  passion  is  the  opposite  of  a  mood. 
Unlike  the  latter  it  is  extremely  intense  and  also  short- 
lived. Because  of  its  great  intensity  it  cannot  last 
long.  Indicative  of  the  four  grades  of  emotion  which 
we  habitually  distinguish  in  speech  are  the  following 
affective  terms  I 

Mood         Weak  Emotion  Strong  Emotion        Passion 

Wonder  Surprise  Astonishment  Amazement 

Irritation  Aversion  Anger  Rage 

Kindliness  Friendliness  Liking  Love 

Chagrin  Mortification  Resentment  Exasperation 

*  R.  M.  Yerkes :  "  An  Introduction  to  Psychology,"  pp.  182,  183. 


138  THE  SECTS 

"  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  stronger  or  more 
intense  the  feeling  which  breaks  in  upon  the  unemo- 
tional consciousness  the  more  numerous,  vivid  and  in- 
tense the  bodily  sensations  which  it  arouses  and  the 
stronger  the  emotion  which  is  experienced.  Those  per- 
sons who  are  prone  to  violent  emotions  pass  into  them 
quickly  and  as  quickly  emerge  from  them.  They  lose 
their  tempers  almost  instantly  upon  provocation,  fly  into 
a  rage  for  a  moment  or  so,  and  emerge  from  it  almost 
before  the  person  who  has  been  the  cause  of  the  emotion 
has  got  well  started  toward  an  emotion  of  resentment. 
Passionate  individuals  are  wont  to  be  surprised  because 
after  they  have  recovered  from  their  anger  toward  a 
person  that  person  is  likely  to  be  at  the  height  of  his 
emotional  experience  and  cannot  be  placated.  This  is 
an  important  individual  difference. 

"As  there  are  eye-minded,  ear-minded  and  touch- 
minded  individuals  among  us,  so  also  are  there  moody, 
even-tempered  and  passionate  persons." 

As  in  temperament,  the  emotional  nature  has  been 
assigned  to  different  physical  causes.  Professor  James 
insisted  upon  the  importance  of  the  physical  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  emotions.  "  If  we  fancy  some  strong  emo- 
tion, and  then  try  to  abstract  from  our  consciousness  of 
it  all  the  feelings  of  its  bodily  symptoms,  we  find  we 
have  nothing  left  behind,  no  mind-stuff  out  of  which 
the  emotion  can  be  constituted  and  that  a  cold  and. 
neutral  state  of  intellectual  perception  is  all  that  re- 
mains. .  .  .  Every  one  of  the  bodily  changes,  whatso- 
ever it  be,  is  felt  acutely  or  obscurely  the  moment  it 
occurs.  .  .  .  What  kind  of  emotion  of  fear  would  be 
left  if  the  feeling  neither  of  quickened  heart-beats,  nor 
of  shallow  breathing,  neither  of  trembling  lips,  nor  of 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  139 

weakened  limbs,  neither  of  goose-flesh  nor  of  visceral 
stirring,  were  present,  it  is  quite  impossible  for  me  to 
think.  Can  one  fancy  the  state  of  rage  and  picture  no 
ebullition  in  the  chest,  no  flushing  of  the  face,  no  dila- 
tion of  the  nostrils,  no  clenching  of  the  teeth,  no  im- 
pulse to  vigorous  action,  but  in  their  stead  limp  mus- 
cles, calm  breathing,  and  a  placid  face?  .  .  .  Each 
emotion  is  the  resultant  of  a  sum  of  elements,  and  each 
element  is  caused  by  a  physical  process  of  a  sort  already 
well  known."  * 

It  is  impossible  to  say  exactly  what  physiological  set- 
ting underlies  different  emotional  characteristics.  Never- 
theless, it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  many  differences  in 
the  emotional  nature  of  people  may  be  traced  to  physical 
differences.  The  first  great  division  into  types  which 
presents  itself  in  this  study  is  the  division  of  the  sexes. 
The  physical  differences  here  are  of  a  very  fundamental 
character.  They  run  back  from  the  human  species  into 
the  lower  orders  of  animal  life.  In  the  simpler  forms 
of  life  the  male  is  more  active  than  the  female,  he  does 
not  live  so  long,  he  does  not  retain  his  energy,  but  dis- 
penses it  rapidly.  With  him  there  is  undoubtedly  more 
chemical  action  and  higher  temperature.  The  primary 
purpose  of  life  for  the  female  is  to  conceive,  bring  forth 
and  nourish  her  progeny.  She  is  usually  larger  than 
the  male,  reserving  her  energy  for  her  offspring.  A 
striking  example  is  furnished  by  the  cochineal.  The 
female  spends  her  life  largely  in  nourishing  her  young. 
She  has  no  wings,  is  immobile,  is  twice  as  large  as  the 
male,  who  is  very  active,  with  long  white  wings.  Even 
after  life  is  over  her  dead  body  serves  as  a  protection 

*Wm.  James:  "The  Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  pp. 
45i,  452. 


140  THE  SECTS 

to  her  eggs  until  they  are  hatched.  Throughout  the 
animal  series  the  same  general  principle  holds  true.  The 
male  is  active  and  combative  and  changes  in  character- 
istics. The  female  is  quite  passive  and  conserves  in  her- 
self the  true  type  of  the  species.  Fouillee  calls  attention 
to  the  fact  that  among  human  beings  the  lung  capacity 
of  women  is  about  2,500  cubic  centimetres,  that  of  man 
is  about  3,700.  So  the  absorbing  of  oxygen  and  elimina- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  are  less  active  processes  in  women ; 
the  blood  contains  less  hemoglobin  and  is  poorer  in 
albumen;  the  arterial  pressure  also  is  less.  All  these 
are  signs,  according  to  Fouillee,  of  less  chemical  activity 
in  the  female  and  less  expenditure  of  energy.  The 
nervous  system  of  women,  he  believes,  makes  them 
susceptible  to  disorders  rare  among  men,  such  as  hys- 
teria and  "  les  nevroses."  Inasmuch  as  the  visceral 
organs  which  take  care  of  the  nutrition  of  the  future 
race  are  highly  developed  in  women,  the  nervous  sys- 
tem controlling  the  viscera  is  more  developed,  and  there 
are  more  'ganglia  controlling  "  la  vie  vegetative  et  sen- 
sitive/* The  feminine  nature  gives  a  physical  reaction 
to  emotions  much  more  easily  than  it  does  in  the  mascu- 
line; witness,  the  blushing  and  the  pallor  and  the  in- 
numerable shades  of  pink,  of  which  the  heroine  in  any 
modern  novel  is  capable. 

These  physical  distinctions  run  out  into  the  realms 
of  temperament,  emotion  and  thought.  The  gallant 
Fouillee  *  admits  that  women  have  not  a  number  of  the 
traits  which  distinguish  men  but  insists  that  the  traits  she 
does  possess  are  of  just  as  high  and  fine  a  character. 
Miss  Thompson  sums  up  the  biological  distinction  be- 
tween the  sexes  as  follows :  "  The  female  represents  the 

*"  Temperament  et  caractere,"  pp.  241-246. 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  141 

conservation  of  the  species — the  preservation  of  past 
gains  made  by  the  race.  Her  characteristics  are  con- 
tinuity, patience  and  stability.  Her  mental  life  is  dom- 
inated by  integration.  She  is  skilled  in  particular  ideas 
and  in  the  application  of  generalizations  already  ob- 
tained, but  not  in  abstraction  or  the  formation  of  new 
concepts.  Since  woman  is  receptive,  she  possesses 
keener  senses  and  more  intense  reflexes  than  man.  Her 
tendency  to  accumulate  nutrition  brings  about  a  greater 
development  of  the  viscera,  and,  since  emotions  are 
reflex  waves  from  the  viscera,  woman  is  more  emotional 
than  man.  The  male,  on  the  other  hand,  represents  the 
introduction  of  new  elements.  Males  are  more  variable 
than  females  throughout  the  animal  kingdom.  Every- 
where we  find  the  male  sex  adventurous  and  inventive. 
Its  variety  of  ideas  and  sentiments  is  greater.  Its' 
activities  are  characterized  everywhere  by  impulsive- 
ness and  intensity,  rather  than  by  patience  and  con- 
tinuity. Men  are  more  capable  of  intense  and  pro- 
longed concentration  of  attention  than  women.  They 
are  less  influenced  by  feeling  than  women.  They  have 
greater  powers  of  abstraction  and  generalization. 

"  It  is  evident  that,  on  the  surface  at  least,  the  results 
at  which  we  have  arrived  accord  very  well  with  this 
theory.  Men  did  prove  in  our  experiments  to  have 
better-developed  motor  ability  and  more  ingenuity. 
Women  did  have  somewhat  keener  senses  and  better 
memory.  The  assertion  that  the  influence  of  emotion  is 
greater  in  the  life  of  women  found  no  confirmation. 
Their  greater  tendency  toward  religious  faith,  however, 
and  the  greater  number  of  superstitions  among  them, 
point  toward  their  conservative  nature — their  func- 


142  THE  SECTS 

tion  of  preserving  established  beliefs  and  institutions."  * 
Undoubtedly  women  feel  more  and  use  their  feelings 
more  than  do  men,  i.e.,  the  feelings  enter  into  her 
life's  preference  and  decisions.  I  am  acquainted  with 
a  young  lady  who  remembers  and  associates  events  in 
the  past  by  her  feelings.  For  example,  she  will  remem- 
ber the  theatre  to  which  she  went  last  evening  by 
the  feeling  she  had  when  approaching  that  particular 
theatre,  which  is  in  a  downtown,  noisy,  dirty  section; 
the  play  she  will  remember,  first,  by%  recalling  how  she 
enjoyed  it,  and,  then,  she  will  recall  the  details  of  the 
acts  and  the  scenes.  With  the  average  man  the  recol- 
lection of  the  theatre  would  come  to  mind  by  some  sort 
of  a  vague  visual  image  of  the  playhouse ;  the  play  itself 
would  occur  to  mind  in  terms  of  the  footlights,  cur- 
tains, costumes,  actors  and  music.  With  this  young 
lady  the  play  of  the  feelings  is  very  important  in  help- 
ing her  to  remember  acquaintances.  She  does  not  re- 
member the  face  or  the  voice,  but  she  does  remember 
the  feeling  of  liking  or  disliking;  after  getting  the  same 
feeling,  then  the  thought  of  the  name  *  presents  itself. 
Perhaps  this  is  rather  an  unusual  case,  perhaps  this 
young  woman  is  not  typical;  nevertheless  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  feelings  do  enter  into  the  everyday 
life  of  women  much  more  than  of  men.  Women  have 
more  finesse,  tact,  address;  they  do  not  reason  from  de- 
tail to  detail,  but  reach  their  conclusions  with  a  hop, 
skip  and  a  jump.  They  cannot  sustain  the  strain  of 
concentrated  attention  as  long  as  men  can,  but  on  the 
other  hand,  their  sensibilities  and,  possibly,  their  quick- 
ness of  association  are  greater. 

*  H.    B.    Thompson :    "  Psychological    Norms    in    Men    and 
Women,"  pp.   172-173. 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  143 

These  obvious  traits  and  differences  of  nature  should 
show  themselves  in  the  religious  nature  of  the  two 
sexes.  Starbuck  *  points  out  that  both  boys  and  girls 
are  converted  to  the  religious  life  most  frequently  at 
about  sixteen  years  of  age,  but  almost  as  large  a  num- 
ber of  girls  are  converted  at  thirteen.  Starbuck  be- 
lieves that  the  spiritual  and  physical  aspects  of  develop- 
ment in  individual  instances  tend  to  supplement  each 
other.  The  girl  develops  earlier  than  the  boy.  In  re- 
gard to  the  motives  which  lead  the  youths  to  the  religious 
life,  Starbuck  finds  that  altruistic  motives  actuate  the 
female  more  than  the  male,  and  that  social  pressure, 
urging,  example  and  imitation  affect  the  female  more 
than  the^male.'  He  finds  that  in  the  experiences  which 
precede  conversion  such  as  the  sense  of  sin,  desire  for 
a  better  life,  depression,  anxiety,  doubt,  etc.,  the  differ- 
ences seem  to  indicate  that  feeling  plays  a  greater  part 
in  the  religious  life  of  the  females,  while  the  males  are 
controlled  more  by  intellection  and  volition. 

"  These  results  may  be  summarized  and  exhibited  as 
follows : 

Men.  Women. 

Intellect       more      prominent;  Sensibility     more     prominent; 

hence,       more       theoretical  hence,   more  doubts  of  per- 

doubts.  sonal  status. 

Emotion    focused    on    definite  Emotion  more  constant,  more 

objects  and  at  definite  peri-  diffused,  more  gentle, 
ods;  hence,  more  turbulence. 

Less   suggestible,    resist   more,  More  suggestible;  hence,  yield 

have  more  intense   struggle,  more  readily  to  ordinary  in- 

and  less  fulfilment  of  expec-  fluences.    Attain  less  in  soli- 

tation.    Attain  more  in  soli-  tude;      have     less      intense 

tude.  struggle,     and    more    fulfil- 
ment of  expectation." 

*E.  D.  Starbuck:  "The  Psychology  of  Religion." 


144  THE  SECTS 

Starbuck  thinks  that  conversion  for  males  is  a  more 
violent  incident  than  for  females;  the  man  prepares 
for  it  longer,  weighs  the  possibilities,  resists  the  forces 
which  oppose  his  will,  and  when  they  become  irresist- 
ible the  change  is  cataclysmic.  In  keeping  with  this  it 
is  a  significant  fact  that  girls  first  awaken  most  fre- 
quently on  the  emotional  side  and  less  often  to  the  new 
insight  into  truth.  The  boys,  on  the  contrary,  have  the 
emotional  awakening  less  frequently,  but  organize  their 
spiritual  world  more  often  as  a  moral  one.  In  those 
unhappy  years  when  one  is  trying  to  reconstruct  his 
faith,  the  tendency  among  men  is  more  often  toward 
reshaping  their  rational  conceptions  of  religion,  while  in 
women  the  reconstruction  is  rather  in  the  inner  life  and 
experience. 

Coe  *  says,  "  Granted  that  this  generalization  is  cor- 
rect, what  religious  differences  should  we  expect  to  find 
between  the  sexes?  We  should  expect  that  women 
brought  up  under  continuous  religious  incitement  and 
suggestion  would  exhibit  greater  continuity  in  religious 
feeling  and  less  tendency  to  pass  through  religious  crises. 
And  this  is,  in  fact,  what  we  appear  to  discover.  With 
men  religion  tends  more  to  focus  itself  into  intense 
crises.  Women  yield  sooner  and  show  more  placid 
progress,  while  men  pass  through  more  definite  periods 
of  awakening. 

"  One  of  the  very  striking  things  about  the  religious 
autobiographies  presented  to  me  is  that,  while  religion 
seems  to  be  a  sort  of  atmosphere  in  the  life  of  women — 
something  all-pervasive  and  easily  taken  for  granted 
— with  the  men  it  is  more  sharply  defined,  brings  greater 

*  G.  A.  Coe :  "  The  Spiritual  Life,"  p.  237. 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  145 

struggles  and  tends  more  to  climacteric  periods.  Men 
are  more  likely  than  women,  it  appears,  to  resist  cer- 
tain religious  tendencies  up  to  the  point  of  explo- 
sion." 

These  different  tendencies  in  the  religious  life  of  the 
sexes  should  show  themselves  in  the  denominations. 
We  should  expect  the  Christian  religion,  or  any  religion 
to  appeal  to  men  and  to  women  differently.  Obviously 
such  large  broad  trends  of  nature  as  those  we  have 
just  described  must  show  themselves  in  the  various 
organizations  for  worship.  This  is  exactly  what  we 
do  find.  The  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for 
Religious  Bodies,  1906,  shows  that  women  predominate 
in  all  the  sects.  This  is  so  universal  that  it  cannot  pos- 
sibly be  a  matter  of  chance.  In  different  states  the 
proportion  of  males  and  females  in  the  population  will 
vary,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  country  there  will  be 
more  women  in  the  churches  than  in  other  parts,  but 
throughout  the  country  as  a  whole  the  women  pre- 
dominate in  all  the  churches.  A  number  of  influences 
make  the  statistics  uncertain.  Immigration  brings  more 
males  to  this  country.  Consequently  many  churches  are 
recruited  from  abroad  by  males  more  than  by  females 
*  and  this  gives  them  the  greater  proportion  of  males  than 
they  would  normally  have.  Of  course  this  applies  more 
to  the  Catholic  Church  than  any  other.  In  order  to  get 
a  fair  comparison  of  the  way  in  which  different  de- 
nominations build  up  their  congregations  from  the 
two  sexes,  I  have  taken  a  number  of  cities  and  sev- 
eral denominations  and  computed  the  per  cent,  of 
women  in  these  different  denominations  for  these  same 
cities. 


146  THE  SECTS 


PER  CENT.  OF  WOMEN  MEMBERS 

Christian  Unita-     Metho-    Congre-    Episco- 

Science     Baptist        rian          dist        gational     palian 


Portland   
Manchester  .  .  . 
Boston 

7^ 

65 

68 
62 

58 
63 
64 

67 

65 
61 

70 

72    , 
68 

69 

66 
62 

New  York  
Cleveland    .... 
Chicago   

/  o 

71 

69 

70 

64 
62 
61 

\jt+ 

55 
61 
63 

'•'O 
64 

61 
62 

63 
62 
60 

60 
60 
62 

Detroit  

60 

64 

63 

61 

6«? 

Denver        .... 

Vi7 

71 

*"T 
63 

56 

62 

64 

"O 

^O 

San  Francisco. 
St.  Louis  
Des  Moines  .  .  . 

/  o 
70 

71 

V\J 

59 
63 

ow 

72 

56 
61 
63 

VWT 
63 
65 
65 

Oy 

66 
64 
64 

Note. — In  taking  averages  throw  out  highest  and  lowest  figures 
for  each  column. 

It  seems  at  first  sight  that  these  tables  would  give  a 
very  good  idea  of  the  way  in  which  the  different  de- 
nominations appeal  to  the  different  traits  in  the  sexes; 
but  a  further  study  shows  that  there  are  so  many  in- 
fluences operating  that  the  natural  trends  of  the  sexes 
are  almost  obliterated;  thus,  in  the  same  denomina- 
tion there  will  be  considerable  differences  in  the  pro- 
portion of  women  belonging  to  its  churches  in  the  same 
city.  Social  influences  and  economic  conditions  play 
a  very  important  part  and  these  do  not  yield  to  any  ac- 
curate measurement.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  all  the 
cross  currents  from  immigration  and  social  conditions, 
the  main  stream  of  tendency  should  show  a  definite 
direction.  Such  a  tendency  certainly  does  appear  in 
the  differences  of  proportion  for  women  in  the  Uni- 
tarian and  the  Christian  Science  churches.  Thus  70 
per  cent,  of  the  members  in  the  Christian  Science  Church 
are  women,  while  60  per  cent,  in  the  Unitarian  are 
women.  This  same  proportion  runs  throughout  the 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  147 

country.  Certainly  the  Unitarian  Church  is  the  pre- 
eminently intellectual  church  in  America.  Harvard 
University  is  the  great  expression  of  its  spirit  and 
ideal.  For  many  years  it  has  appealed  to  the  intellectual 
people  of  the  most  intellectual  section  of  the  country. 
Compare  the  utterances  of  Channing  and  those  of  Mrs. 
Eddy!  What  could  be  further  apart?  Channing's  ap- 
peal is  to  straight  thinking,  clean-cut  and  definite.  Mrs. 
Eddy  appeals  to  those  who  wish  above  all  else  for 
health.  This  wish  is  a  profound  emotion,  there  is 
"  will  to  believe  " ;  the  matter  of  detailed  argument  is 
insignificant  with  such  people.  They  do  not  get  any 
clean-cut,  logical  conceptions  out  of  Mrs.  Eddy's  philos- 
ophy, if  it  may  be  called  such ;  they  do  get  a  feeling 
that  there  is  a  profound  argument  going  forward,  which 
they  do  not  understand,  but  with  whose  conclusion  they 
are  in  hearty  sympathy.  Women  find  this  sort  of  an 
appeal  more  cogent  than  do  men. 

It  is  the  "  argumentum  ad  feminam,"  and  is  stronger 
than  the  "  argumentum  ad  hominem."  One  would  ex- 
pect the  tenets  and  practices  of  the  Christian  Science 
churches  to  appeal  to  women  more  than  to  men,  and 
this  the  statistics  certainly  prove  beyond  question. 

It  is  not  quite  easy  to  say  why  the  Congregational 
churches  average  65  per  cent,  women,  while  the  Metho- 
dist, Baptist  and  Episcopal  average  around  63  per  cent. 
It  is  true  the  Congregational  Church  is  strongest  in 
New  England,  where  women  outnumber  men  more  than 
in  any  other  section  in  the  country,  but  that  does  not 
seem  a  sufficient  explanation.  Perhaps  the  true  reason 
lies  in  the  character  of  the  Congregational  Church  to- 
day. It  is  not  a  doctrinal  church,  it  is  no  longer  inter- 
ested in  questions  of  theology,  its  appeal  to-day  is  to 


148  THE  SECTS 

the  religious  life,  to  the  religious  experience,  to  altruistic 
motives.  The  emotional  life  of  the  denomination  is 
sober,  sane  and  uniform.  These  traits,  and  its  well- 
known  altruistic  traits,  probably  account  for  the  large 
proportion  of  women  in  it. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  that  the  Methodist  Church, 
which  insists  upon  a  definite  experience,  a  conversion, 
does  not  appeal  to  the  emotional  nature  of  women  any 
more  than  do  the  exercises  of  the  Episcopal  Church, 
through  which  one  grows  easily  and  naturally  into  the 
church  membership. 

The  most  important  truth  which  the  statistics  give 
us  is  the  great  truth  that  Christianity  appeals  to  the 
finer  things  in  human  nature,  and  is  responded  to  by  that 
sex  in  whose  nature  the  higher  feelings  play  the  greater 
part.  Where  Christianity  has  been  distorted  under  the 
leadership  of  a  woman  it  appeals  much  more  to  certain 
distinctively  feminine  traits.  Among  these  feminine  traits 
|  is  suggestibility.  By  suggestibility  is  meant  the  strength- 
ening of  one  idea  or  set  of  ideas  at  the  expense  of  the 
idea,  or  ideas,  which  would  naturally  be  in  opposition; 
that  is,  the  natural  procedure  of  one's  thinking  is  inter- 
fered with  in  such  a  manner  that  the  balance  of  one 
idea  over  against  another  is  destroyed  and  the  balance 
is  tipped  in  the  favour  of  the  one  rather  than  the  other. 
In  hypnotism  the  mind  is  in  an  abnormal  condition 
and  one  idea  is  strengthened  at  the  expense  of  all  others, 
and  the  subject  carries  out  that  one  idea,  ignoring  all 
others.  In  a  state  of  excitement  one  idea  arises  in 
mind  and  takes  possession  of  the  field  of  thought  and 
the  individual  hastens  to  carry  out  this  idea.  Professor 
Miinsterburg  says :  *  "  The  readiness  to  accept  sugges- 
*H.  Miinsterberg:  "Psychotherapy,"  p.  88. 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  149 

tions  is  evidently  quite  different  with  different  indi- 
viduals. From  the  most  credulous  to  the  stubborn  we 
have  every  degree  of  suggestibility,  the  one  impressed 
by  the  suggestive  power  of  any  idea  which  is  brought 
to  his  mind,  the  other  always  inclined  to  distrust  and  to 
look  over  to  the  opposite  argument.  Such  a  stubborn 
mind  is,  indeed,  not  only  without  inclination  for  sug- 
gestions, but  it  may  develop  even  a  negative  suggestibil- 
ity; whatever  it  receives  awakens  an  instinctive  impulse 
towards  the  opposite.  Moreover,  we  are  all  in  different 
degrees  suggestible  at  different  times  and  under  various 
conditions.  Emotions  reenforce  our  readiness  to  accept 
suggestions.  Hope  and  fear,  love  and  jealousy,  give 
to  the  impression  and  the  idea  a  power  to  overwhelm 
the  opposite  idea,  which  otherwise  might  have  influenced 
our  deliberation." 

The  principle  of  suggestion  which  we  find  operating 
to  induce  health  in  Christian  Science  students  is  a  prin- 
ciple which  appears  in  other  forms  of  the  Christian 
church,  so  it  will  be  well  to  tarry  for  a  moment  and  to 
study  suggestion  in  its  relation  to  religion.  In  religion 
we  have  seen  emotion  play  a  very  essential  part  and, 
also,  emotion  is  the  chief  assistant  of  suggestion.  Now, 
suggestion  often  acts  in  an  unconscious  manner;  e.g., 
when  we  are  walking  in  the  business  sections  of  Chicago 
we  find  ourselves  hurrying  along  in  true  Chicago  style, 
though  there  may  be  no  reason  for  our  hastening. 
Others  hurry,  so  we  hurry,  and  are  surprised  when  we 
discover  ourselves  hurrying.  In  this  instance  the  sug- 
gestion comes  from  those  surrounding  us  and  we  are 
unconsciously  acting  out  what  is  given  us.  Another  form 
of  suggestion,  more  difficult  to  understand,  is  that  which 
we  give  ourselves  and  which  works  out  some  time  after 


ISO  THE  SECTS 

we  are  conscious  of  giving  ourselves  such  a  suggestion. 
I  find  that  if  I  think  about  making  certain  thrusts  and 
parries  in  fencing  that,  when  I  come  to  fence  six  hours 
or  a  day  after  going  over  the  movements  in  my  mind, 
I  actually  do  better  work  in  the  bout.  Perfectly  honest 
men  have  thought  about  methods  of  getting  rich  quickly 
(which  they  would  not  practise)  but  after  years  of 
thinking  such  matters  over  some  exceptional  opportunity 
has  been  the  means  of  starting  many  a  man  along  the 
line  which  he  had  discussed  with  himself,  but  had  never 
intended  to  pursue.  "  Out  of  the  heart  are  the  issues  of 
life,"  saith  the  Scriptures.  "  Out  of  the  thoughts  which 
habitually  occupy  the  mind  comes  the  conduct  of  life," 
saith  Psychology.  There  are  some  types  which  carry 
out  into  action  what  they  have  suggested  to  them- 
selves much  more  easily  than  do  other  types.  Professor 
Coe  found  a  considerable  difference  between  people  who 
had  striking  religious  conversions  and  those  who  failed 
to  have  such  conversions,  though  they  had  expected 
them  quite  as  much  as  those  who  had  succeeded  in  hav- 
ing them.  It  would  appear  from  his  study  that  the 
suggestions  arising  in  mind  concerning  the  experience 
whicrT~one  is  to  go  through  may  actually  be  lived  out 
by  a  certain  type  of  nature.  He  found  that  women, 
whom  we  have  seen  are  more  suggestible  than  men, 
pass  through  the  experience  they  expect  more  readily 
than  do  men.  He  also  found  among  those  who  expected 
a  certain  transformation  in  conversion,  and  who  ex- 
perienced it,  were  individuals  who  had,  at  one  time  or 
another  in  life,  experienced  motor  automatisms.  They 
had  heard  voices  speaking  when  all  was  quiet,  they  had 
seen  flashes  of  light,  had  dreamed  dreams  and  seen 
visions  of  an  extraordinary  character.  Coe  also  be- 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  151 

lieves  that  this  sort  of  suggestibility  renders  a  subject 
more  easily  hypnotized  than  is  normally  the  case.  We 
have,  then,  a  type  of  nature  which  couples  together  emo- 
tionalism and  suggestibility  and  which  works  toward 
a  certain  kind  of  religious  experience.  We  have  seen 
that  there  are  churches  which  insist  upon  a  definite 
transformation  in  life,  a  dying  of  the  old  self,  a  birth 
of  a  new  self.  Such  churches  would  naturally  be  re- 
cruited from  the  type  of  people  we  have  just  described. 
The  old-fashioned  Methodist  Church,  such  as  may  be 
found  to-day  in  rural  communities,  was  distinctly  of 
this  type.  The  city  churches  to-day  look  askance  at 
revival  methods  which  were  considered  the  work  of  the 
Lord  a  generation  ago.  Indeed,  a  very  large  number,  a 
constantly  growing  number,  of  religious  readers  are 
working  away  from  the  idea  that  a  definite,  clean-cut 
transformation  is  the  natural  way  to  pass  from  the  ir- 
religious to  the  religious  life.  It  is  becoming  more  and 
more  realized  that  religion  is  a  perfectly  natural  thing 
and  that  a  child  should  grow  up  into  religious  thoughts 
and  feelings  as  he  matures.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  type  of  nature  which  can  swing  from  one  kind  of 
life  to  another  in  a  short  time  shall  be  ignored.  Cer- 
tainly, there  is  a  place  for  revival  work;  surely,  the 
rough,  effective  methods  used  by  our  fathers  are  not 
entirely  useless  to-day,  though  the  attitude  of  the  pres- 
ent age  is  against  them.  The  forces  of  civilization  are 
raising  the  general  level  of  intelligence,  the  public  school 
is  levelling  the  whole  population.  The  emotional  up- 
heavals which  appeared,  for  example,  in  politics  a  score 
of  years  ago  are  not  possible  to-day.  It  is  to  be  expected 
that  the  old  revival  method  would  also  pass  out  with 


152  THE  SECTS 

the  coming  of  universal  education  and  the  emphasis 
upon  the  intellectual  rather  than  the  emotional. 

Professor  James,  in  speaking  of  the  two  types  of  re- 
ligious nature,  says,*  "There  is  thus  a  conscious  and 
voluntary  way  and  an  involuntary  and  unconscious  way 
in  which  mental  results  may  get  accomplished,  and  we 
find  both  ways  exemplified  in  the  history  of  conversion, 
giving  us  two  types  which  Starbuck  calls  the  .jyjiiiiional 
type  and  the  type  by  s.dtanrrender^  respectively.  In  the 
volitional  type  the  regenerative  change  is  usually  grad- 
ual, and  consists  in  the  building  up,  piece  by  piece,  of  a 
new  set  of  moral  and  spiritual  habits."  The  self-sur- 
render type  is  the  type  in  which  suggestion  works  un- 
consciously and  one  surrenders  to  it;  it  appears  to  de- 
velop subconsciously.  "  Emotional  occasions,  especially 
violent  ones,  are  extremely  potent  in  precipitating  men- 
tal rearrangements.  The  sudden  and  explosive  ways  in 
which  love,  jealousy,  guilt,  fear,  remorse  or  anger  can 
seize  upon  one  are  known  to  everybody.  Hope,  hap- 
piness, security,  resolve,  emotions  characteristic  of  con- 
version can  be  equally  explosive.  And  emotions  that 
come  in  this  way  seldom  leave  things  as  they  found 
them"  (op.  cit.,  19).  There  can  be  no  question  that 
there  is  a  conversion  type  of  Christian  and  that  we  find 
this  trend  in  human  nature  expressing  itself  in  a  large 
group  of  sects. 

Among  primitive  people,  Davenport  f  found  many 
traits  which  appear  in  those  who  succumb  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Christian  revivals.  He  thinks  that  the  same 
mental  and  temperamental  traits  enter  into  the  exer- 

*  William  James:  "The  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience," 
p.  206. 
t  F.  M.  Davenport :  "  Primitive  Traits  in  Religious  Revivals." 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  153 

cises  of  primitive  man  and  the  conversions  of  the  re- 
vival. In  describing  primitive  man  he  says,  "  We  may 
mention  together  a  group  of  primitive  characteristics, 
the  chief  of  which  is  nervous  instability  with  its  inevi- 
table accompaniments  of  remarkable  imitativeness  and 
suggestibility  and  great  lack  of  inhibitive  control "  (p. 
18).  "  Primitive  man  is  led  to  action  by  impulse  rather 
than  by  motives  carefully  reflected  upon.  His  opinions 
are  chiefly  beliefs,  that  is  they  are  products  of  imagina- 
tion and  emotion.  And  because  there  is  so  much  emo- 
tion in  his  opinions,  it  carries  him  quickly  into  action. 
His  will  power,  in  any  high  sense,  is  relatively  weak  " 
(p.  21 ).  Davenport  calls  attention  to  the  appearance 
of  the  sensory  and  motor  automatisms.  The  convulsions, 
hallucinations  and  visions,  a  whole  group  of  reflex 
phenomena.  These  appear  among  the  Indians  in  their 
ghost-dances,  among  the  American  negroes  in  their 
camp-meetings  and  in  many  of  the  revivals  among  the 
whites.  The  way  in  which  the  religious  dance  of  the 
Indians  spreads  from  tribe  to  tribe  is  very  suggestive 
of  the  way  in  which  the  great  revivals  spread  from 
place  to  place  throughout  Kentucky.  Both  are  due  to 
imitativeness,  which  rests  upon  suggestibility.  In  read- 
ing Davenport  one  cannot  help  being  struck  by  the 
very  numerous  instances  in  which  women  figure  promi- 
nently in  these  Indian  dances,  or  negro  meetings  or 
great  Christian  revivals.  It  is  an  Indian  girl  who  first 
succumbs  to  the  influence  of  the  religious  dance.  Almost 
every  entry  quoted  from  Wesley's  Journal  speaks  of 
the  influence  of  the  Methodist  religion  of  that  day 
upon  women. 

It  certainly  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  those  strains 
in  human  nature  which  lead  men  and  women  to  the 


154  THE  SECTS 

religious  experiences  characterized  often  as  sudden  con- 
versions, trances  or  visions  are  strains  resulting  from  a 
nervous  instability. 

In  the  so-called  Holiness  movements  which  have  ap- 
peared in  recent  years,  and  which  have  appealed  to  a 
class  of  people  of  little  education,  many  of  these  traits 
which  are  described  as  characteristic  of  primitive  peo- 
ple come  forth.  These  same  paroxysms,  the  same  phe- 
nomena of  hypnotic  character  are  easily  recognized.  It 
is  not  at  all  unusual  in  these  Holiness  meetings  to  see 
the  old-fashioned  camp-meeting  emotionalism,  to  hear 
a  fervid  brother,  or  sister,  give  utterances  to  a  soul- 
shaking  shriek,  or  to  rise  and  start  a  march,  while  sing- 
ing, up  and  down  the  aisles  of  the  meeting-house.  I 
have  known  an  enthusiastic  convert  who  had  given  up  a 
dissipated  life  and  had  become  "  sanctified,"  to  stand 
in  the  meeting,  shout  and  sing,  give  way  to  his  im- 
pulses and  cry  "  all  who  want  to  go  to  Heaven,  follow 
me  " ;  then  he  led  a  parade  around  the  meeting-hall.  A 
calm,  unexcitable  nature  is  invariably  considered,  in 
these  circles,  as  lacking  in  spirituality  and  as  incapable 
of  receiving  spirituality  or  inspiration.  Of  course, 
among  the  negroes,  not  influenced  by  city  life,  many  of 
the  revival  phenomena  are  still  to  be  seen ;  though  it 
is  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the  negro  people  that,  despite 
their  native  tendencies,  they  have  so  largely  abandoned 
their  old  customs.  Among  the  Methodist  churches  it  is 
hard  to  distinguish  a  Methodist  service  from  any  other, 
so  far  have  they  grown  away  from  the  methods  of  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century.  Cities  have  a  very  great 
levelling  influence,  and  have  shaped  the  worship  of  the 
different  denominations  after  one  general  pattern, 
which  is  congenial  to  the  spirit  of  the  age. 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  155 

After  this  recital  of  the  objectionable  features  in  the 
strongly  emotional  nature,  it  is  but  fair  to  cite  some  of 
the  advantages  of  this  same  nature.  Emotion  is  one  of 
the  first  characteristics  of  youth.  The  buoyancy,  the  ex- 
hilaration of  the  years  of  adolescence  are  the  outcome 
of  natural  emotion.  What  would  we  not  give  in  the 
even,  sober,  routine  of  middle  age  for  some  of  the 
riotous,  uproarious  enthusiasm  of  youth!  Is  not  the 
dead-line  of  forty  the  place  where  life  slips  away  from 
the  inspirations  of  the  emotional  nature  into  the  mat- 
ter-of-fact disposition  of  the  practical  man?  No  one  has 
expressed  the  worth  of  emotion  better  than  Professor 
James.*  "  Where  the  character,  as  something  dis- 
tinguished from  the  intellect,  is  concerned,  the  causes 
of  human  diversity  lie  chiefly  in  our  differing  sus- 
ceptibilities of  emotional  excitement,  and  in  the  differ- 
ent impulses  and  inhibitions  which  these  bring  in  their 
train.  Let  me  make  this  more  clear. 

"  Speaking  generally,  our  moral  and  practical  attitude, 
at  any  given  time,  is  always  a  resultant  of  two  sets  of 
forces  within  us,  impulses  pushing  us  one  way  and  ob- 
structions and  inhibitions  holding  us  back.  '  Yes ! 
yes ! '  say  the  impulses ;  '  No !  no ! '  say  the  inhibitions. 
Few  people  who  have  not  expressly  reflected  on  the 
matter  realize  how  constantly  this  factor  of  inhibition 
is  upon  us,  how  it  contains  and  moulds  us  by  its  re- 
strictive pressure  almost  as  if  we  were  fluids  pent  within 
the  cavity  of  a  jar.  The  influence  is  so  incessant  that 
it  becomes  subconscious.  .  .  . 

"  So  far  I  have  spoken  of  temporary  alterations  pro- 
duced by  shifting  excitements  in  the  same  person.  But 

*  W.  James :  "  The  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience,"  pp.  261, 
265,  266. 


156  THE  SECTS 

the  relatively  fixed  differences  of  character  of  different 
persons  are  explained  in  a  precisely  similar  way.  In  a 
man  with  a  liability  to  a  special  sort  of  emotion,  whole 
ranges  of  inhibition  habitually  vanish,  which  in  other 
men  remain  effective,  and  other  sorts  of  inhibition  take 
their  place.  When  a  person  has  an  inborn  genius  for 
certain  emotions,  his  life  differs  strangely  from  that  of 
ordinary  people,  for  none  of  their  usual  deterrents 
check  him.  Your  mere  aspirant  to  a  type  of  character, 
on  the  contrary,  only  shows,  when  your  natural  lover, 
fighter  or  reformer,  with  whom  the  passion  is  a  gift  of 
nature,  comes  along,  the  hopeless  inferiority  of  volun- 
tary to  instinctive  action.  He  has  deliberately  to  over- 
come his  inhibitions ;  the  genius  with  the  inborn  pas- 
sion seems  not  to  feel  them  at  all;  he  is  free  of  all 
that  inner  friction  and  nervous  waste.  To  a  Fox,  a 
Garibaldi,  a  General  Booth,  a  John  Brown,  a  Louise 
Michel,  a  Bradlaugh,  the  obstacles  omnipotent  over 
those  around  them  are  as  if  non-existent.  Could  the 
rest  of  us  so  disregard  them  there  might  be  many  such 
heroes,  for  many  have  the  wish  to  live  for  similar  ideals, 
and  only  the  adequate  degree  of  inhibition-quenching 
fury  is  lacking. 

"  The  difference  between  willing  and  merely  wishing, 
between  having  ideals  that  are  creative  and  ideals  that 
are  but  pinings  and  regrets,  thus  depends  solely  either 
on  the  amount  of  steam-pressure  chronically  driving 
the  character  in  the  ideal  direction,  or  on  the  amount 
of  ideal  excitement  transiently  acquired.  Given  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  love,  indignation,  generosity,  magnanim- 
ity, admiration,  loyalty  or  enthusiasm  of  self-surrender, 
the  result  is  always  the  same.  That  whole  raft  of  cow- 
ardly obstructions,  which  in  tame  persons  and  dull  moods 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  157 

are  sovereign  impediments  to  action,  sinks  away  at 
once.  Our  conventionality,  our  shyness,  laziness  and 
stinginess,  our  demands  for  precedent  and  permission, 
for  guarantee  and  surety,  our  small  suspicions,  timid- 
ities, despairs,  where  are  they  now?  Severed  like  cob- 
webs, broken  like  bubbles  in  the  sun." 

After  all,  the  world  to-day  is  a  young  man's  world; 
men  of  seventy  who  are  still  in  the  heyday  of  success 
are  invariably  young  men  at  heart.  When  the  impelling 
power  of  the  emotions  ceases,  there  is  no  longer  any 
steam  to  keep  the  machinery  going.  In  no  institution, 
or  organization,  is  this  more  obvious  than  in  the  Church. 
The  difference  between  a  vigorous  church  and  a  supine, 
inert  one,  is  enthusiasm.  Surely  it  was  the  ardour  of  the 
followers  of  Wesley  that  inspired  England,  when  the 
nation  appeared  to  be  listless  and  run  down.  The  great 
achievements  of  the  Elizabethan  age  were  in  the  past. 
That  nation  seemed  to  be  in  the  winter  of  its  existence; 
with  the  uprising  of  Wesley's  movement  came  new  in- 
spirations and  new  incentives  which  affected  the  whole 
social  order.  In  the  United  States  the  Methodist  Church 
swept  from  coast  to  coast,  every  city,  village,  cross- 
roads and  countryside  possessed  its  enthusiastic 
churches.  From  one  of  the  smallest  churches  during 
the  Revolutionary  period  it  quickly  grew  to  the  great- 
est. Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  extravagance  of  its 
revival  methods,  it  remains  true  that  it  has  achieved  a 
wonderful  success.  Indeed,  the  excesses  of  the  reviv- 
als are  often  overemphasized.  Though  some  shocking 
things  are  recorded  of  the  Kentucky  revivals  it  must  be 
acknowledged  that  these  same  revivals  improved  Ken- 
tucky most  wonderfully. 

In  emotion  a  number  of  various  types  may  be  found. 


158  THE  SECTS 

It  is  not  right  to  speak  of  emotion  as  though  it  were  of 
but  one  quality,  obviously  there  are  different  kinds  of 
emotion. 

Ribot  *  declares,  "  There  exists  an  Affective  Type  as 
clear  and  as  well-defined  as  the  visual,  the  auditory  and 
the  motor  types.  It  consists  in  the  easy,  complete  and 
preponderant  revivals  of  affective  impressions.  .  .  . 
There  exists  not  only  a  general  emotional  type;  it  ad- 
mits of  varieties,  and  it  is  even  probable  that  partial 
types  are  the  most  frequent.  ...  I  have  not  at  pres- 
ent a  sufficient  supply  of  documents  to  enter  on  the 
study  of  the  varieties  of  the  affective  type;  but  it  is 
certain  that  they  exist;  that  for  some,  a  clear  and  fre- 
quent revival  only  takes  place  in  the  case  of  pleasurable 
impressions;  in  others,  of  gloomy  or  of  erotic  images. 
.  .  .  Individual  differences  in  the  revivability  of  emo- 
tional states  certainly  play  a  great  part  in  the  consti- 
tution of  different  types  of  character.  Moreover  the 
existence  of  variations  of  the  emotional  type  cuts  short 
the  question,  acrimoniously  debated  by  some  writers, 
whether  pains  can  be  more  easily  remembered  than 
pleasures.  Optimists  and  pessimists  have  fought  fiercely 
over  this  fantasmal  problem;  but  it  is  a  vain  and  fac- 
titious question  so  long  as  we  suppose  that  it  admits  of 
but  one  solution.  There  is  not  and  cannot  be  a  general 
answer. 

"  Certain  individuals  revive  joyful  images  with  aston- 
ishing facility;  sad  memories  when  they  arise  are  easily 
trodden  down.  I  know  an  inveterate  optimist,  success- 
ful in  all  of  his  undertakings,  who  has  much  difficulty 
in  picturing  to  himself  the  few  reverses  that  he  has 

*  Ribot,  Thomas:  "The  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,"  pp. 
167,  169. 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  159 

experienced.  '  I  remember  joys  much  more  easily  than 
painful  states/  is  an  answer  I  frequently  meet  with  in 
my  notes.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  who  say, 
*  I  remember  sorrows  much  more  easily  than  pleasurable 
states/  In  the  course  of  my  inquiries  I  have  found 
that  the  latter  are  the  most  numerous;  but  I  do  not  see 
my  way  to  draw  any  conclusions  from  this  fact.  One 
says,  '  I  find  it  much  easier  to  revive  unpleasant  feel- 
ings, whence  my  tendency  to  pessimism.  Joyous  im- 
pressions are  evanescent.  A  painful  recollection  makes 
me  sad  at  a  joyful  moment;  a  joyful  recollection  does 
not  cheer  me  at  a  sad  one/ ' 

In  another  chapter  the  two  great  trends  in  the  causes 
which  have  given  rise  to  the  sects  are  found  to  lie  in 
two  distinct  dispositions;  the  one  looks  forward  hope- 
fully, courageously,  cheerfully  to  future  improvement, 
the  other  looks  backward  dissatisfied  with  the  present, 
seeing  no  good  for  the  future,  desiring  to  return  to  the 
past.  Under  these  two  dispositions  lie  differences  in  the 
emotional  nature,  the  same  differences  which  appear  in 
the  Radical  and  the  Conservative.  Every  political  body, 
every  government  knows  these  two  types;  one  is  the 
party  of  progress,  for  it  the  golden  age  lies  ahead;  the 
other  is  the  party  of  precedent,  for  it  wisdom  is  to  be 
found  among  the  Fathers,  and  only  there.  In  this  dif- 
ference of  the  emotional  nature  we  find  the  explanation 
of  the  austere  Puritan  and  the  cheery,  wholesome 
optimist  in  the  churches  which  spring  up  as  our  civiliza- 
tion sweeps  westward.  Compare  the  characters  of 
Henry  Ward  Beecher  and  Jonathan  Edwards!  Con- 
trast the  popular,  progressive,  successful  church  with 
the  doctrinal,  unsocial  church  clinging  to  historic  tradi- 
tions. It  is  a  far  cry  from  the  people  who  cannot  endure 


160  THE  SECTS 

an  organ  in  their  church  service  to  the  people  whose 
evening  service  is  a  sacred  concert.  This  contrast  im- 
pressed me  very  forcibly  when  in  a  village  in  Bavaria. 
Being  accustomed  to  the  austerity  of  a  New  England 
town,  the  Sabbath  among  these  people,  reputed  to  be  the 
happiest  in  Europe,  was  a  revelation.  To  see  the  priest 
mingling  among  the  people  as  they  gathered  in  a  great 
garden,  laughing  and  talking  and  sipping  their  beer  all 
in  high  good  humour,  carefree  with  a  loving  God  above 
them  and  no  thought  of  offending  Him,  was  to  me  a 
startling,  new  idea  of  the  relation  of  Church  and  people. 
Here,  there  was  no  repression,  no  need  for  repression; 
the  simple,  natural  people  were  enjoying  themselves  in 
a  wholesome  way,  not,  perhaps,  impossible  to  the  New 
Englander;  but  certainly  uncongenial  to  the  Scotch- 
man and  his  Kirk.  No  one  can  mingle  among  people  of 
different  racial  temperament  and  expect  the  churches 
representing  these  types  to  be  the  same  in  America.  No 
one,  indeed,  can  study  human  nature  and  look  upon  the 
differences  in  church  life  as  radical  differences  of  re- 
ligion. The  sooner  the  churches  realize  that  their  dif- 
ferences are  to  be  found  in  human  nature  and  not  in 
God,  the  sooner  will  Christ's  ideal  that  we  are  all  one  in 
Him  be  realized. 

The  last  feature  of  the  emotional  type  is  a  most  im- 
portant one.  It  has  been  pointed  out  continually  that 
thought  and  feeling  are  bound  together.  Thought  in- 
fluences feeling  and  feeling  influences  thought. 

This  intimate  relation  between  feeling  and  thinking 
has  been  known  to  orators  for  ages.  Often  Reason  can- 
not carry  its  point  and  Emotion  is  called  in  to  do  the 
work.  Cicero  did  not  satisfy  himself  with  a  recital  of 
Catiline's  treacherous  performances.  He  aroused  the 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  161 

emotions  of  his  hearers  with  allusions  to  their  pro- 
tecting gods,  their  sacred  city,  the  safety  of  their  homes 
and  lives,  the  lustre  of  their  honour  and  good  names. 
He  played  upon  the  whole  keyboard  of  their  feelings 
and  in  the  rush  and  whirl  of  the  excitement  all  counter- 
arguments were  forgotten  and  the  balance  of  judgment 
swept  away.  Warren  Hastings  declared  that  Burke's 
eloquence  so  touched  the  emotions  that  he  forgot  the 
truth  of  the  situation  in  his  sympathy  with  the  orator. 
Very  often  the  politician  finds  an  old  battle-flag  a  much 
more  effective  argument  than  economics  and  sociology. 
Men  do  reach  their  conclusions  with  more  than 
"mere  reason,"  as  a  general  rule.  The  seduction  to 
think  as  they  feel  is  too  cogent  and  potent.  Only  the 
singularly  honest  and  clear-minded  avoid  the  tempta- 
tion to  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  refuse  to 
shape  their  convictions  to  their  desires.  Hosts  of  most 
estimable  people  declare  of  something  "  that  is  a  hor- 
rible thing  to  believe,  I  couldn't  believe  that " ;  and 
they  could  not  because  their  minds  are  in  partnership 
with  their  feelings  and  their  feelings  take  another 
course.  This  is  proverbially  true  of  our  thoughts  about 
our  children,  our  near  relatives  and  our  best  friends. 
Nothing  can  make  the  lover  see  the  flagrant  defects  of 
his  lady,  or  the  famous  virtues  of  his  rival!  Perhaps 
one  reason  for  this  is  the  concomitance  of  certain 
classes  of  thoughts  with  certain  classes  of  emotions. 
Evil,  dangerous,  loathsome  objects  invariably  call  up 
emotions  of  disgust,  fear,  antipathy.  Indeed,  the  quick- 
ness with  which  these  emotions  arise  is  often  astonish- 
ing. I  have  found  the  feeling  of  aversion  arise  when 
a  distorted  face  was  displayed  in  a  tachistoscope  before 
the  face  was  fully  seen  in  its  hideousness.  The  feeling 


162  THE  SECTS 

of  revulsion  was  an  accompaniment  of  recognition  and 
not  subsequent  to  it.  Such  constant  and  natural  associa- 
tion of  feeling  with  thought  may  well  cause  the  influence 
of  feeling  upon  thought.  If  evil  is  associated  with  hatred 
and  good  with  love,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  an  argument 
which  calls  up  feelings  of  disgust  and  aversion  will  pre- 
dispose the  mind  to  a  very  different  sort  of  conclusion 
than  it  would  be  apt  to  take  if  the  course  of  argument 
brought  forth  sympathy,  kindness  and  affection.  In- 
deed, it  may  well  be  said  that  it  is  unnatural  to  be  im- 
pervious to  the  "  argumentum  ad  hominem." 

A  remarkable  sidelight  is  thrown  upon  the  subject  by 
studies  in  abnormal  psychology.  The  "  insistent  idea  " 
which  takes  a  stronger  and  stronger  hold  upon  the  mind 
until  it  has  deranged  the  equilibrium,  is  started  in  its 
course  by  some  accompanying  emotion.  In  time  the  emo- 
tion which  racked  the  soul  is  forgotten,  but  the  idea 
which  was  engendered  in  the  heat  of  the  moment  is 
clear  and  prominent.  May  not  this  explain  many  of 
the  ideas  which  endure  so  stubbornly?  They  were 
made  part  of  our  beliefs  during  some  great  emotional 
experience  and  the  impress  made  upon  the  mind  in  those 
moments  of  plastic  suggestibility  has  hardened  into  a 
permanent  possession.  This  would  explain  why  some 
clear-minded  men  still  cling  to  old  illusions  though  they 
acknowledge  that  they  cannot  defend  them.  I  know  an 
old  soldier  who  fought  for  a  wrong  cause.  In  the  fer- 
vour of  youth  and  high  ardour  he  enlisted.  To  this 
day  he  is  blind  to  the  reason  of  his  old  foes. 

For  many  people  the  catechism  which  they  learn  in 
their  early  youth  has  become  a  part  of  their  philosophy. 
It  was  taken  into  their  lives  surrounded  with  the  most 
precious  influences ;  the  memory  of  the  long  evenings  in 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  163 

which  it  was  memorized,  is  a  memory  which  treasures 
the  love  of  an  affectionate  mother  and  a  host  of  tender 
associations.  Into  one's  life  its  precepts  enter  bound  up 
with  the  most  enduring  and  endearing  affections,  and 
when  in  later  years  the  things  it  taught  are  brought  into 
question,  it  is  not  an  intellectual  matter,  but  seems  rather 
to  be  a  matter  which  concerns  itself  with  one's  loyalty 
to  one's  dearest  connections.  No  man  can  receive  his 
religious  instruction  from  those  whom  he  has  loved  and 
admired,  and  then  in  a  quiet,  dispassionate  way  change 
his  convictions.  Many  students  come  to  our  universities 
with  a  philosophy,  or  rather  a  theology,  which  is  not 
in  keeping  with  the  thought  of  their  times;  often  they 
experience  several  years  of  reconstruction  in  their  think- 
ing. So  intimately  bound  up  is  one  truth  with  another 
in  their  training  that  they  are  often  tempted  to  throw 
over  all  their  religious  convictions  when  one  of  them  is 
assailed.  Not  infrequently  a  man  of  deep  feeling  and 
strongly  loyal  nature  will  cling  to  his  youthful  teaching 
in  spite  of  all.  He  cannot  let  it  go,  it  is  too  dear  to  him. 
The  responsibility  for  his  predicament  lies  with  his 
church  and  his  home ;  they  should  have  acquainted  them- 
selves with  the  thoughts  of  the  day,  and  though  they  were 
out  of  sympathy  with  them,  they  should  have  sought  to 
build  up  a  religious  faith  which  would  not  be  shaken 
when  it  came  in  contact  with  the  intellectual  movements 
of  the  present. 

In  this  principle  of  relation  between  thought  and 
feeling  lies  the  explanation  of  many  archaic  beliefs. 
Long  ago  impartial  thinking  men  gave  up  a  number  of 
the  tenets  which  grew  out  of  the  Reformation.  It  is 
wicked  to  teach  youths  doctrines  which  they  cannot  in- 
telligently hold  when  they  mature.  Nothing  is  more 


164  THE  SECTS 

distasteful  to  a  young  man  than  that  which  savours  of 
hypocrisy.  A  church  which  argues  that  one  must  be- 
lieve certain  things  because  they  are  a  part  of  the  church 
tradition  and  doctrine  is  making  an  appeal  to  the  emo- 
tions, not  to  the  intelligence.  When  a  teaching  of 
science  is  attacked  by  the  Church,  as  it  often  is,  with  the 
argument  that  if  science  is  right  then  we  must  surrender 
the  cherished  beliefs  of  our  fathers,  it  is  an  argument 
which  appeals  only  to  those  who  hold  to  their  beliefs  be- 
cause they  are  cherished.  There  are  many  people  who 
hold  to  their  beliefs  for  no  other  reason.  They  frankly 
confess  that  they  cannot  believe  this,  or  they  cannot  be- 
lieve that,  not  because  the  beliefs  are  unintelligible,  or  do 
not  conform  with  facts,  but  because  they  conflict  with  the 
believer's  own  likes  and  dislikes.  Open-mindedness  is 
as  much  a  matter  of  the  heart  as  of  the  head.  In  the 
South,  among  people  who  are  famously  warm-hearted, 
kindly,  sociable,  hospitable,  the  old  conceptions  hold 
sway  much  more  effectively  than  in  New  England.  In 
the  South  a  quotation  from  the  Bible  closes  an  argu- 
ment; in  the  North  such  a  quotation  starts  an  argu- 
ment. To  be  broad-minded  and  to  be  willing  to  shape 
one's  convictions  to  one's  intelligence,  requires  more  than 
mental  vigour;  it  requires  a  courage  possessed  only  by 
the  sturdiest  hearts.  Surely,  the  world  should  deal 
kindly  with  the  bigot  who  clings  to  his  dogma  because 
it  became  his  possession  along  with  many  of  the  noble 
things  which  have  entered  his  life.  The  best  things 
of  the  doctrinaire  are  his  loyalty  and  his  devotion; 
these  should  not  be  forgotten  when  he  is  censured  for 
obstructing  the  progress  of  Christianity. 

Unquestionably,  there  is  a  place  for  the  prejudice  of 
the  doctrinaire  in  the  changing  thought  of  to-day.     It 


EXPERIENTIAL  TYPES  165 

is  as  great  an  error  to  change  with  every  changing 
wind  of  doctrine  as  it  is  to  be  interred  in  the  grip  of 
tradition.  The  unstable  mind  is  one  which  has  no 
anchorage  in  any  strong  emotion.  The  present  age 
calls  for  men  of  deep  feeling  who  have  won  their  con- 
victions in  intellectual  battles,  and  who  do  not  easily 
surrender  them,  but  who  are  willing  at  any  time  to 
enter  the  battle  again  and  are  willing  to  change  their 
convictions  not  only  for  their  own  good  but  for  the 
good  of  coming  generations. 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES 

IT  is  commonly  believed  that  the  differences  be- 
tween men  in  matters  of  intelligence  are  simply 
the  differences  between  the  bright  and  the  stupid. 
There  is  a  word  for  "  fool  "  in  every  language.  Psy- 
chology supplements  such  obvious  distinctions  with  a 
number  of  more  refined  discriminations.  The  labora- 
tories have  been  busy  for  a  generation  seeking  out  in- 
conspicuous mental  differences  in  men.  When  such  dif- 
ferences are  descried  everyone  recognizes  them  and 
wonders  why  they  have  not  been  noticed  before.  Some 
of  the  results  of  this  work  bear  directly  upon  the  dif- 
ferences in  religious  thinking.  In  this  chapter  several 
of  the  characteristics  of  different  mental  types  are  pre- 
sented. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  all  the  thinking 
processes  is  the  attention*-  It  is  the  focal  point  into 
which  the  rays  of  conscious  life  gather.  Constantly 
shifting  its  position  with  reference  to  the  whole  field 
of  consciousness,  it  is  always  the  "  clearest  area "  of 
consciousness.  Its  strength  is  the  strength  of  the  mind. 
Its  weakness  is  anarchy.  When  the  mind  cannot  gather 
itself  for  vigorous  application,  independent  of  distrac- 
tion, and  cannot  persist  in  its  own  course,  then  the  soul 
becomes  a  derelict,  tossed  in  every  direction  by  all  the 
passing  fancies  and  feelings. 

166 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  167 

Two  great  Types  of  attention  are  easily  recognized; 
the  Voluntary  and  the  Involuntary.  Every  mind  is  party 
to  both.  In  voluntary  attention  the  thoughts  are  self- 
guided  and  independent  of  external  distraction ;  one  con- 
sideration suggests  another  according  to  the  principles  of 
mental  life.  In  involuntary  attention  the  thoughts  are 
directed  from  impressions  without,  or  drift  as  in  a 
reverie.  The  former  is  more  easily  occupied  with  ideal, 
or  intellectual  objects,  the  latter  is  more  readily  given 
to  objects  of  sense.  With  education  the  attention  be- 
comes better  adapted  to  grasp  and  master  the  ideal. 
For  this  reason  the  pictures  and  diagrams  of  the  youth's 
text-book  give  place  to  the  close-knit  thoughts  of  the 
university  texts,  and  the  symbols  and  rites  of  a  religious 
organization  become  shallow  and  unserviceable  to  the 
mind  which  can  keep  its  hold  upon  ideal  things  without 
the  aid  of  material  means. 

A  natural  division  appears  between  those  religious  or- 
ganizations which  seek  to  reach  the  cultured  and  those 
that  attract  the  uneducated.  Certainly,  their  work  would 
be  more  efficient  if  the  natural  disposition  of  the  atten- 
tion were  recognized  in  the  two  orders  of  minds.  There 
are  many  bare,  plain  churches  where  the  strong-headed 
sons  of  the  Puritans  can  find  spiritual  inspiration  in  the 
words  of  some  clear-minded  preacher,  but  where  the 
labourer,  who  seldom  controls  his  attention  for  any 
length  of  time,  and  whose  education  has  never  de- 
manded concentration  of  thought,  would  find  the  service 
unprofitable  and  dispiriting.  The  thinker,  with  the 
habits  of  years  in  directing  a  mind  whose  thoughts  have 
been  his  life,  finds  the  obvious  symbolism  and  the  sim- 
ple truths  of  the  ritualistic  churches  stupid.  That  is, 
such  is  the  natural  tendency,  and  such  is  usually  the 


168  THE  SECTS 

case,  though  many  things  enter  into  men's  religious 
preferences;  and  occasionally  the  most  cultivated  and 
alert  minds  find  their  spiritual  comfort  in  repeating  a 
ritual  and  attending  a  service  which  has  become  part 
of  their  lives  through  years  of  habit. 

In  another  chapter  the  unique  differences  in  racial 
tastes  for  art  and  literature  are  found  to  go  back  to  a 
native  mental  endowment.  The  people,  whose  atten- 
tion could  grasp  many  things  at  once,  preferred  the 
more  complicated,  less  obvious  styles.  This  "  span  of 
attention  "  has  been  a  matter  of  considerable  study  for 
some  years.  An  apparatus  which  exposes  a  card  for  a 
fraction  of  a  second  enables  the  experimenter  to  learn 
how  many  objects  can  be  attended  when  placed  on  the 
card  in  such  a  way  that  the  eye  inevitably  sees  them  all 
at  the  instant  of  exposure.  Considerable  differences  in 
the  ability  to  "  span  "  the  objects  are  found  in  different 
observers.  Why  one  person's  brain  should  be  able  to 
grasp  more  in  a  given  moment  than  another's  is  hard  to 
explain.  Perhaps  it  is  due  to  the  physiological  ability  to 
arouse  brain  tracts  into  activity.  If  we  think  of  the 
attention  as  that  part  of  the  brain  which  is  more  alert 
than  another  part;  and  if  we  imagine  that  this  alertness 
shifts  over  the  brain-tracts,  now  affecting  one  centre 
and  now  another,  awakening  groups  of  associations  in 
the  visual  centres,  in  the  auditory  centres,  in  the  motor 
areas,  or  in  the  speech  centres,  we  may  represent  to 
our  fancy  a  class  of  brains  in  which  the  shifting  process 
is  slow  and  the  groups  of  associated  tracts  are  few,  or 
we  may  imagine  the  reverse.  In  those  brains  which 
have  many  tracts  active  at  once  we  may  imagine  we  have 
the  broad-spanned  individual.  I  am  persuaded  that 
such  an  one  not  only  has  a  greater  area  of  alertness, 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  169 

but  that  his  faculty  for  quickly  shifting  his  centre  of 
activity  is  better  than  the  narrow-spanned.*  The  broad- 
spanned  attention  is  apparently  the  expression  of  a 
brain  natively  endowed  in  a  characteristic  way;  though 
the  ability  to  improve  in  breadth  of  span  is  present  in 
all  and  the  narrow  type  may  accomplish  much  in  some 
one  line  of  endeavour  by  constant  practice. 

I  recently  studied  a  number  of  university  men  with  a 
view  to  describing  the  characteristic  traits  of  attention. 
I  found  marked  differences  even  among  men  who  had 
had  very  much  the  same  sort  of  educational  training  for 
many  years.  These  traits  go  deeper  than  education. 
They  are  certainly  in  the  very  fibres  of  nature.  With 
the  association  tests  the  most  marked  individualities 
would  appear.  Some  men  would  be  able  to  associate 
four  words  with  a  word  suggested  to  them  inside  of 
three  or  four  seconds ;  other  men  could  with  difficulty 
supply  the  four  associated  words  in  twice  that  time. 
What  a  snapshot  of  the  mental  processes  this  gives! 
When  the  quick  associaters  are  listening  to  an  address 
the  thoughts  move  so  quickly  that  they  dance  all  around 
the  lecturer's  words;  or  they  will  read  another  volume 
between  a  writer's  lines.  Their  world  is  filled  with  ani- 
mation. Thoughts  crowd  into  their  minds  in  throngs. 
A  veritable  panorama  of  ideas  ranges  before  them.  Not 
so  with  their  slow-thinking  colleagues.  It  requires  all 
the  time  they  have  to  catch  and  assimilate  a  speaker's 
thought.  If  they  attempt  to  circle  around  his  thought 
and  call  up  a  number  of  associations  to  embellish,  or 
illustrate  his  meaning,  the  train  of  thought  is  lost  for 

*  H.    C.    McComas :    "  Some    Types    of    Attention,"    Psychol. 
Monog.,  13,  No.  3. 


170  THE  SECTS 

them.  They  are  left  behind.  But  one  course  is  open 
to  them.  They  must  plod. 

Surely  it  must  be  evident  to  the  most  superficial  thinker 
that  these  two  classes  of  men  will  gravitate  in  different 
directions  if  left  to  their  own  devices.  The  things  that 
attract  and  hold  the  one  class  will  probably  not  appeal 
to  the  other.  The  mental  life  in  the  one  is  unlike  that 
of  the  other.  With  the  one  those  subjects  which  awaken 
his  mind,  and  arouse  his  imagination  so  that  the  atten- 
tion skips  through  teeming  crowds  of  thoughts  will 
give  him  a  natural  satisfaction.  The  other  moves  within 
a  narrower  horizon.  His  world  is  less  generously  popu- 
lated. To  see  at  all  he  must  carefully  focus  upon  each 
thing.  A  simpler  world  is  his. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  treat  all  phases  of  the 
thinking  processes,  and  it  is  impracticable  to  go  into 
many  details.  Only  those  large  features  which  obvi- 
ously affect  the  individual's  intellectual  life  as  it  relates 
to  his  religious  nature  interest  us.  Of  these,  probably, 
the  "  Ideational  Types  "  are  most  important. 

The  chapter  on  "  Ideational  Types  "  in  psychology  is 
still  in  the  writing.  Much  remains  to  be  learned. 
Enough,  however,  is  known  about  the  way  in  which 
different  people's  imagery  and  memory  processes  operate 
to  enable  us  to  discriminate  between  typical  groups.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  the  senses  supply  the  ma- 
terials which  the  brain  uses  in  its  work.  As  the  infant 
brain  matures  the  connecting  fibres  become  more  and 
more  medullated  or  sheathed.  That  is,  a  sort  of  insulat- 
ing of  the  nerve  connections  develops  with  the  use  of 
these  tracts.  Obviously  this  will  not  be  the  same  in  all 
brains.  Some  difference  in  the  proportions  of  develop- 
ment must  arise  in  the  growth  of  so  extremely  com- 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  171 

plex  an  organ  as  the  brain.  Such  differences  of  develop- 
ment added  to  what  innate  differences  occur  in  the 
brain  itself  would  indicate  that  the  later  functions  of 
brains  could  not  be  identical.  With  the  experiences  of 
different  infants,  differing,  and  with  the  brain  predis- 
positions differing,  it  is  but  natural  to  assume  that 
the  several  senses  which  furnish  the  brain  with  its  ma- 
terials should  do  so  in  considerably  unequal  propor- 
tions. One  infant  may  start  with  a  greater  facility  for 
catching  sounds  and  retaining  them  than  another.  A 
second  may  find  that  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  remem- 
ber a  movement  made  and  to  repeat  such  a  movement 
in  connection  with  other  movements;  while,  probably, 
all  find  that  the  vast  amount  of  material  coming  to  the 
brain  from  the  eyes  supplies  the  bulk  of  the  "  Thought- 
Stuff."  Some  native  predisposition,  or  some  exigency 
of  experience,  or  both,  evidently  start  the  brain  in  its 
habits.  Habits  once  formed  are  nature  itself.  To  this 
moulding  of  the  brain  the  functions  of  more  mature 
years  bear  evidence.  For  there  are  very  clear  differ- 
ences between  the  imagery  of  different  people.  So  clear 
are  these  inequalities  of  mental  endowment  that  the 
term,  Visualizer,  has  been  applied  to  those  who  repre- 
sent an  experience  to  the  mind  clearly  and  vividly  in 
terms  of  sight.  The  Audile  has  an  unique  ability  to 
recall  or  imagine  tones,  noises,  a  voice,  a  piece  of  music, 
etc.  The  Moteur  more  easily  represents  to  his  mind  the 
feelings  in  his  muscles  and  joints,  lips  and  throat. 

Fechner,  one  of  the  great  pathfinders  in  psychology, 
was  the  first  to  study  the  differences  in  people's  ability 
to  imagine.  He  compared  the  visual  image  which  arose 
in  his  mind  when  he  thought  of  a  certain  object  with 
the  clearness  and  the  vividness  of  the  object  as  it  was 


172  THE  SECTS 

actually  seen.  He  found  that  his  memory  image  was 
nothing  like  so  sharp  and  coloured  as  was  the  actual 
sight  of  the  object.  But  he  found  there  were  people 
who  could  see  with  their  mind's  eye  memory  images 
which  were  nearly  as  distinct  as  the  original  subjects. 
Francis  Galton  followed  the  study  of  these  peculiarities 
with  great  care.  He  prepared  a  set  of  questions  designed 
to  bring  out  each  subject's  ability  to  visualize.  To  his 
astonishment  he  learned  that  a  great  many  scientists 
had  no  knowledge  of  mental  imagery.  Their  thinking 
seemed  to  be  in  verbal  terms.  "  On  the  other  hand,  men 
and  yet  a  larger  number  of  women,  and  many  boys  and 
girls,  declared  that  they  habitually  saw  mental  imagery 
and  that  it  was  perfectly  distinct  to  them  and  full  of 
colour.  The  power  of  visualizing  is  higher  in  the  female 
sex  than  in  the  male,  and  is  somewhat,  but  not  much, 
higher  in  public-school  boys  than  in  men.  After  ma- 
turity is  reached,  the  further  advance  of  age  does  not 
seem  to  dim  the  faculty,  but  rather  the  reverse,  judg- 
ing from  numerous  statements  to  that  effect;  but  ad- 
vancing years  are  sometimes  accompanied  by  hard  ab- 
stract thinking,  and  in  these  cases — not  uncommon 
among  those  whom  I  have  questioned — the  faculty  un- 
doubtedly becomes  impaired.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  it  is  very  high  in  some  young  children,  who  seem 
to  spend  years  of  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  the 
subjective  and  objective  world.  Language  and  book- 
learning  certainly  tend  to  dull  it.  The  visualizing 
faculty  is  a  gift  and,  like  all  natural  gifts,  has  a  tendency 
to  be  inherited.  Since  families  differ  so  much  in  re- 
spect to  this  gift,  we  may  suppose  that  races  would 
also  differ,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  such  is  the 
case.  I  hardly  like  to  refer  to  civilized  nations,  because 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  173 

their  natural  faculties  are  too  much  modified  by  educa- 
tion to  allow  of  their  being  much  appraised  in  an  off- 
hand fashion.  I  may,  however,  speak  of  the  French, 
who  appear  to  possess  the  visualizing  faculty  in  a  high 
degree.  The  peculiar  ability  they  show  in  prearranging 
ceremonials  and  fetes  of  all  kinds,  and  their  undoubted 
genius  for  tactics  and  strategy,  show  that  they  are  able 
to  foresee  effects  with  unusual  clearness.  Their  in- 
genuity in  all  technical  contrivances  is  an  additional 
testimony  in  the  same  direction,  and  so  is  their  singular 
clearness  of  expression.  Their  phrase  '  figurez-vous/ 
or  '  picture  to  yourself/  seems  to  express  their  domi- 
nant mode  of  expression."  * 

Professor  James  found,  after  questioning  his  students 
for  many  years,  that  some  could  bring  a  scene  before 
their  minds  with  great  distinctness,  and  that  others 
"  have  no  visual  images  worthy  the  name."  One  poor 
visualizer  said :  "  My  ability  to  form  mental  images 
seems,  from  what  I  have  studied  of  other  people's  images, 
to  be  defective,  and  somewhat  peculiar.  The  process  by 
which  I  remember  any  particular  event  is  not  by  a  series 
of  distinct  images,  but  a  sort  of  panorama,  the  faintest 
impressions  of  which  are  perceptible  through  a  thick 
fog.  I  cannot  shut  my  eyes  and  get  a  distinct  image  of 
anyone,  although  I  used  to  be  able  to  a  few  years 
ago,  and  the  faculty  seems  to  have  gradually  slipped 
away." 

Professor  James  declares  that  "  a  person  whose  visual 
imagination  is  strong  finds  it  hard  to  understand  how 
those  who  are  without  the  faculty  can  think  at  all.  In 
some  individuals  the  habitual  '  thought-stuff/  if  one  may 

*  Quoted  by  W.  James:  "The  Principles  of  Psychology/1 
Vol.  II,  p.  55- 


174  THE  SECTS 

so  call  it,  is  visual ;  in  others  it  is  auditory,  articulatory, 
or  motor;  in  most,  perhaps,  it  is  evenly  mixed.  The 
same  local  cerebral  injury  must  needs  work  different 
practical  results  in  persons  who  differ  in  this  way.  In 
one  it  will  throw  a  much-used  brain  tract  out  of  gear; 
in  another  it  may  affect  an  unimportant  region." 

Professor  Titchener  does  not  think  that  the  "  thought- 
stuff"  is  evenly  mixed  in  anyone.  I  have  found  but 
one  person  in  thirty  who  professed  the  ability  to  repre- 
sent an  action  to  his  mind  with  the  distinctness  and 
cogency  of  sight,  and  he  claimed  that  his  auditory 
imagery  was  inferior  to  either  of  the  other  two  facul- 
ties. I  think  that  most  people  are  visualizers  of  a  higher 
or  lower  order  in  their  youth,  and  that  their  auditory 
imagery  is  next  in  order  of  clearness  and  distinctness, 
while  the  motor  imagery  is  least  efficient  of  all.  The 
"  Types  "  result  from  the  fact  that  the  proportions  of 
ability  vary  from  individual  to  individual,  and  not  from 
any  predominance  of  auditory  or  motor  imagery  over 
visual,  except  in  abnormal  cases,  or  among  the 
blind. 

The  auditory  Type  uses  the  imagery  derived  from  the 
sense  of  hearing  very  much  more  than  do  the  other 
types.  The  "  audile "  will  seek  to  retain  a  page  of 
writing  in  memory  by  repeating  it  aloud  and  recalling 
the  sound  of  his  voice,  rather  than  by  retaining  an  im- 
pression of  the  appearance  of  the  page.  Such  people 
often  remember  a  friend's  voice  better  than  his  face. 
Musicians  are  probably  of  this  type.  It  is  impossible  for 
strong  visualizers  to  conceive  how  a  great  musician  can 
hold  an  image  of  an  entire  composition  in  mind  at  a 
given  moment. 

The  "motile"  or  "moteur"  makes  use,  in  memory, 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  175 

reasoning  and  all  their  intellectual  operations,  of  images 
derived  from  movement.  In  order  to  understand  this  im- 
portant point,  it  is  enough  to  remember  "  that  all  our  per- 
ceptions, and  in  particular  the  important  ones,  those  of 
sight  and  touch,  contain  as  integral  elements  the  move- 
ments of  our  eyes  and  limbs;  and  that,  if  movement  is 
ever  an  essential  factor  in  our  really  seeing  an  object,  it 
must  be  an  equally  essential  factor  when  we  see  the 
same  object  in  imagination"  (Ribot).  There  are  per- 
sons who  remember  a  drawing  better  when  they  have 
followed  its  outlines  with  their  finger.  Lecoq  de  Bois- 
baudran  used  this  means  in  his  artistic  teaching,  in  order 
to  accustom  his  pupils  to  draw  from  memory.  He  made 
them  follow  the  outlines  of  figures  with  a  pencil  held 
in  the  air,  forcing  them  thus  to  associate  muscular  with 
visual  memory.  Galton  quotes  a  curious  corroborative 
fact.  "  Colonel  Moncrieff  often  observed  in  North 
America  young  Indians  who,  visiting  occasionally  in 
his  quarters,  interested  themselves  greatly  in  the  en- 
gravings which  were  shown  them.  One  of  them  followed 
with  care  with  the  point  of  his  knife  the  outline  of  a 
drawing  in  the  Illustrated  London  News,  saying  that  this 
would  enable  him  to  carve  it  out  the  better  on  his  return 
home.  In  this  case  the  motor  images  were  to  reenforce 
the  visual  ones."  * 

These  differences  do  not  depend  upon  the  sense-organs 
for  their  peculiarities.  As  Titchener  says  in  his  "  Text- 
Book  of  Psychology  "  (p.  403),  "  The  image  is  a  later  de- 
velopment than  the  sensation,  and  we  may  expect,  ac- 
cordingly, that  it  will  show  a  greater  individual  varia- 
tion. The  psychology  of  sensation  is  concerned  primarily 

*  Binet :  "  Psychologic  du  Raisonnement,"  quoted  by  James, 
"Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  60,  61. 


176  THE  SECTS 

with  uniformities;  all  those  who  possess  normal  sense- 
organs  have  the  same  general  endowment  of  sensations ; 
and  we  refer  striking  peculiarities  like  colour-blindness, 
tone-deafness,  insensitivity  to  pitch  differences, — we 
refer  these  peculiarities,  when  they  appear,  to  some  ab- 
normality of  the  organ.  The  psychology  of  the  image, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  essentially  an  individual  psychology. 
The  normal  brain  is  a  much  more  variable  thing  than 
the  normal  sense-organ,  and  the  ideas  of  different  minds 
are  constituted  in  very  different  ways." 

These  characteristic  modes  of  recalling  the  past  and 
of  building  up  images  of  the  external  universe  undoubt- 
edly account  for  many  dissimilar  results  in  our  philoso- 
phies and  theologies !  To  quote  Titchener  again  (p. 
405),  "The  attitude  of  attention  is  different,  according 
as  one  is  visual  or  auditory-kinsesthetic ;  and  the  mode 
of  recitation  differs,  being  slow  and  systematic  in  the 
former  case,  quick  and  impulsive  in  the  latter,  while  the 
mistakes  made  are  in  both  instances  characteristic.  A 
preponderant  type  may  be  traced  in  an  author's  style; 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  cardinal  doctrines  of 
the  traditional  British  psychology  are  to  be  explained  by 
the  fact,  evident  from  their  books,  that  the  writers  were 
predominantly  visual-minded."  Given  the  same  ma- 
terials out  of  which  to  build  great  conceptions,  so  dif- 
ferently will  widely  unlike  types  of  mind  handle  these 
materials  that  the  structures  built  will  be  as  far  apart  as 
the  Colosseum  and  an  epic  poem.  If  philosophy  could  start 
with  axioms  which  were  grounded  upon  fundamental 
laws  of  thought,  and  could  build  upon  such  a  foundation 
while  adhering  to  rigid  logical  principles,  all  philosophy 
would  result  in  the  same  conclusions.  Types  of  imagina- 
tion and  of  attention  would  have  no  more  influence  upon 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  177 

such  systems  than  they  do  upon  mathematics.*  Our 
starting  points  in  philosophy  are  chosen  in  harmony  with 
our  mental  tastes.  Our  tastes  are  satisfied  only  as  our 
thinking  proceeds  along  congenial  lines. 

Two  of  the  most  noted  philosophers  of  to-day  live 
side  by  side.  They  are  old  friends.  Each  has  read  the 
other's  books  and  is  conversant  with  his  philosophy. 
Both  have  remarkably  clear  minds  and  great  ability  of 
expression.  Each  succeeds  in  persuading  many  highly- 
educated,  brilliant  minds  to  accept  his  system  of  philos- 
ophy. Neither  succeeds  in  convincing  the  other  that  the 
other's  system  is  wrong.  Why?  If  philosophy  were 
grounded  solely  upon  facts,  either  of  these  master-minds 
would  readily  correct  his  system  to  fit  the  facts.  If 
philosophy  were  a  rigid  structure  of  logic  both  of  these 
minds  would  follow  the  same  route  and  arrive  at  the 
same  destination.  Philosophy  does  deal  with  facts  and 
does  use  logic,  but  not  exclusively.  It  is  an  interpreta- 
tion of  the  universe.  Of  what  universe?  Obviously  each 
mind  knows  best  the  universe  of  his  own  experience  and 
observation.  To  the  broad-spanned,  the  universe  is  full 
of  rich  colours,  wondrous  forms,  unnumbered  sugges- 
tions of  things  not  known  or  knowable,  to  the  narrow- 
spanned,  known  by  symbol  rather  than  in  warm,  living 
colour,  by  words  rather  than  by  objects;  but  incisive, 
sharp  and  cleanly  cut. 

These  psychological  types  of  mind  afford  an  explana- 
tion for  the  tendency  of  the  German  to  explain  the  uni- 
verse in  terms  of  mystery  or  in  great  systems  of  Ideal- 
ism; while  his  French  neighbour  loves  positivism  and 
the  clear,  clean-cut  thinking  of  Realism.  They  also  help 

*  Stern,  L.  W. :  "  Ueber  Psychologic  der  Indiv.  Differenzen," 
PP-  52,  53- 


178  THE  SECTS 

us  to  understand  why  the  study  of  life  in  the  splendid 
systems  of  philosophy,  from  Thales  down,  is  so  full  of 
contradictions.  A  study  of  these  philosophers'  theories  of 
the  attention  shows  that  they  were  not  all  of  the  same 
type,  and  where  it  is  possible  to  learn  of  their  ideational 
type  there  are  strong  indications  of  diversity  there.* 

Along  with  these  mental  traits  go  certain  traits  of 
quickness  or  slowness  in  mental  activity.  "There  are 
also  marked  individual  differences  of  association.  Ob- 
servers in  the  psychological  laboratory  fall,  as  do  chil- 
dren in  the  schoolroom,  into  two  great  groups ;  the  quick 
learners  and  the  slow  learners.  Popular  psychology  has 
been  all  on  the  side  of  the  slow  pupil;  if  he  is  slow, 
he  is  also  sure;  his  knowledge  is  solidly  established; 
while  his  more  active-minded  companion  is  pronounced 
shallow;  his  knowledge  goes  as  easily  as  it  comes.  Re- 
tention, we  have  no  need  to  insist,  is  a  very  complicated 
matter,  and  there  may  very  well  be  conditions  under 
which  popular  psychology  is  right.  Experiments  seem  to 
show,  however,  that  at  least  under  certain  circumstances 
it  is  definitely  wrong.  The  quick  learner  appears  to  re- 
tain as  well  as  the  slow ;  he  has  the  advantage  at  the  start, 
and  he  loses  nothing  by  the  lapse  of  time."  f 

Without  adding  to  the  list  of  mental  traits  enough 
have  been  discussed  to  give  a  very  good  explanation  of 
several  types  of  religious  thinking.  But,  before  consid- 
ering the  results  of  these  native  endowments  upon  the 
beliefs  of  their  possessors,  a  few  words  should  be  devoted 
to  the  place  of  thinking  in  a  man's  religion. 

It  is  very  often  said  that  theology  is  not  religion, 
that  creed  and  dogma  obstruct  rather  than  assist  re- 

*L.  L.  Uhl:   "On  Attention." 
fTitchener,  op.  cit.,  p.  405. 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  179 

ligious  progress.  No  one  can  deny  that  a  theology  which 
commended  itself  to  people  who  did  not  know  the  simple 
truths  of  geography,  astronomy,  history,  chemistry,  bi- 
ology and  psychology  with  which  a  high-school  pupil  of 
to-day  is  familiar,  is  a  theology  that  gives  more  perplexity 
than  clarity  in  religious  thinking.  Not  only  is  the  teach- 
ing at  variance  with  modern  knowledge,  but  the  spirit 
of  the  sixteenth  century  could  tolerate  a  despotic,  Cal- 
vinistic  deity  which  is  intolerable  to  American,  modern 
ideals.  It  is  true,  therefore,  that  our  inherited  theologies 
and  creeds  do  not  help  educated  people,  and  often  are  the 
causes  of  disaster.  Be  that  as  it  is!  That  does  not 
prove  that  systematic,  consistent  statements  are  not  great 
aids  to  thought  in  any  sphere,  religious  or  other.  A 
system  of  theology  which  commands  intelligent  assent  is 
the  great  demand  of  this  age.  For  one  thing  is  indis- 
putably true,  no  one  can  think  one  thing  and  believe 
another.  Moreover,  no  one  can  have  a  religion  which 
does  not  rest  on  a  creed,  not  definite,  perhaps,  but  definite 
enough  for  him  to  know  what,  in  general,  he  thinks 
about  God,  the  Soul,  Duty  and  the  Future.  Every  re- 
ligious experience  must  have  some  thought-basis.  It  is 
absurd  to  say  "  away  with  theology,  let  us  have  religion." 
It  would  be  as  sensible  to  say  "  away  with  the  mere  ob- 
jects of  affection,  let  us  have  affection  alone,  supreme." 
No  emotion,  no  spiritual  experience  can  take  hold  upon 
a  man  unless  his  thoughts  first  arouse  the  latent  powers 
of  his  nature.  Once  awakened,  they  accompany  his 
thoughts,  helping  to  colour  and  to  fashion  them.  The 
more  emotional  he  is  the  more  the  aroused  feelings  will 
lead  his  thinking;  the  more  intellectual  he  is,  the  more 
his  emotions  will  be  controlled  by  his  thinking.  In  his 
thinking  he  will  take  the  direction  his  nature  imposes. 


i8o  THE  SECTS 

As  the  traveller,  who  does  not  know  that  nature  usually 
gives  a  man  one  leg  slightly  shorter  than  the  other,  walks 
in  the  forests,  or  on  the  prairies,  always  tends  to  turn 
toward  the  side  of  the  shorter  limb;  so  the  thinker  un- 
consciously veers  into  the  direction  which  his  individual 
traits  decree.  Some  men  are  liberal,  some  are  literal 
in  their  thought-lives.  Beneath  the  actual  results  of  their 
thinking  the  undertow  of  nature  may  be  detected  as  it 
urges  them  in  one  general  direction. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  not  hard  to  group  cer- 
tain mental  traits  together  and  to  predict  what  will  be 
the  trend  of  the  thinker  possessing  them.  The  ability  to 
learn  quickly  means  the  ability  to  recall  easily  what  has 
been  learned  before.  Associations  arise  quickly ;  they 
surround  the  new  impression,  they  give  it  its  interpre- 
tation, they  give  it  a  place  in  company  with  many  other 
impressions  received  before.  Some  men  associate  so 
quickly  that  they  cannot  begin  to  express  themselves  as 
quickly  as  their  thoughts  come  flooding  in.  Others  speak 
slowly  and,  on  introspecting,  declare  that  they  have  ex- 
pressed every  thought  that  occurred  to  them.  When  the 
associations  come  in  terms  of  visual  imagery  we  often 
speak  of  the  person  as  imaginative,  though  the  word  is 
as  applicable  to  any  other  form  of  imagery.  Some  au- 
thors describe  the  conception  of  their  work  as  coming 
before  their  mental  vision  in  throngs  of  scenes.  Spur- 
geon  once  said  that  his  imagination  gave  the  thunderous 
hoof-beats  of  a  host  of  horses  so  distinctly  that  he  seemed 
actually  to  hear  them.  To  a  mind  which  calls  up  many 
impressions  of  a  character  similar  to  the  one  being 
received  the  new  one  is  broadened  and  heightened.  To 
the  slower  thinker  this  may  also  occur  if  he  has  the  time 
for  it;  but  if  he  is  listening  to  a  sermon  he  will  not 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  181 

have  the  time,  and  his  impression  of  what  the  speaker 
has  said  will  be  very  much  slimmer  and  more  colour- 
less than  that  of  his  quicker  neighbour.  The  mental 
habits  of  the  two  become  dissimilar.  The  mind  that 
ranges  easily  and  quickly  over  many  thoughts  will  ac- 
quire a  habit  of  looking  at  propositions  from  many 
points  of  view.  So  many  possibilities  occur  that  a 
breadth  of  view,  a  tolerance  of  different  ideas,  becomes 
natural.  If  we  add  to  this  mental  alertness  the  faculty 
of  grasping  ideas  in  the  large,  as  the  broad-spanned  type 
was  seen  to  do,  we  have  an  additional  reason  for  a 
liberal  mind.  For  with  such  a  faculty  a  statement  tends 
to  come  not  piecemeal  but  wholly  before  the  mind.  The 
unity  of  the  thought  is  apprehended.  One  notices  such 
differences  in  giving  dictation  to  a  stenographer.  Some 
grasp  a  long  sentence,  holding  the  thought  in  all  of  its 
relations;  while  others  can  take  only  a  clause  at  a  time. 
More  painfully  does  one  notice  it  when,  after  a  public 
address  or  sermon,  some  hearers  show  their  compre- 
hension of  the  thoughts  expressed  and  some  show  they 
have  only  fragments,  which  they  quote  literally,  show- 
ing an  entirely  different  understanding  of  what  was  said. 
Surely,  these  two  classes  of  minds  see  two  different 
religious  worlds. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  liberal  mind  is  the 
issue  of  intellectual  factors  alone.  Feeling  always  enters. 
Sometimes  a  broad,  quick  intellect  is  found  holding  the 
convictions  of  the  Literalist  and  using  his  gifts  to  de- 
fend them.  If  we  add  to  our  breadth  of  attention  and 
alertness  of  thought  an  emotional  nature,  which  is  not 
intense  enough  to  over-ride  the  intellect,  but  which  is 
vigorous  enough  to  sympathize  with  the  feelings  of 
others, — a  nature  which  has  known  love,  fear,  anger, 


182  THE  SECTS 

hope,  sorrow  and  happiness ;  then  the  scope  of  the  mental 
life  is  supplemented  by  that  of  feeling  and  the  outcome 
is  the  Liberal. 

To  a  mind  of  such  endowments  the  narrative  of  Christ's 
Last  Supper  will  teem  with  life.  It  will  be  impossible 
to  satisfy  such  a  nature  with  a  partial  understanding  of 
the  narration.  No  "  mass "  or  "  close  communion " 
would  ever  occur  to  his  mind  in  reading  the  account. 
The  narrowed  outlook,  which  sees  in  the  supper  one  thing 
and  that  only,  is  impossible  to  a  liberal  nature  reading 
the  narrative  without  prejudice.  For  him  the  whole 
scene  rises  as  a  whole;  the  character  of  the  feast,  its 
history,  the  hostile  city,  the  fidelity  and  infidelity  of  the 
men  present,  the  wonderful  soul  that  illumines  the  whole 
event,  the  spirit  of  the  hour,  the  teaching  of  the  Leader, 
His  rebuke  to  their  ambitions,  His  washing  of  the  dis- 
ciples' feet,  His  love  for  them  all,  His  giving  them  the 
bread  and  wine,  His  reaching  into  the  same  bowl  with 
Judas,  both  eating  the  same  morsels,  the  avowal  of 
loyalty,  the  impending  tragedy.  From  such  a  climax,  in 
the  career  of  Christ,  only  the  Literalist  could  wrench 
the  isolated  teaching  of  "  feet  washing/'  or  "  transub- 
stantiation."  So,  indeed,  throughout  the  Bible  the  mind 
and  heart  which  see  and  feel  largely  will  take  more  than 
single  passages,  proof  texts,  or  specific  incidents  for  the 
bases  of  their  religious  beliefs. 

In  contrast  with  this  we  may  group  the  traits  oppo- 
site in  character  to  those  which  went  into  the  making  of 
the  JLifeefrf.  If  one  learns  slowly  he  cannot  in  the  same 
length  of  time  learn  as  much  as  th^,  quick  learner.  At 
thirty  years  of  age  he  will  not  he^s  well  informed  as  the 
quick  thinker  of  the  same  a^e— other  things  being  equal. 
He  may  give  the  impression  of  having  learned  thor- 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  183 

oughly  what  he  has,  because  he  brings  his  mental  pos- 
sessions into  small  compass  and  can  give  good  epitomes 
of  what  he  knows.  The  clearness  of  his  knowledge,  due 
to  his  singleness  of  viewpoints,  passes  for  solidity  and 
accuracy.  This  is  the  slow-thinking,  narrow-spanned 
mind  with  no  crowding,  teeming  imagery.  Add  to  such 
a  mental  constitution  an  emotional  nature  that  takes  its 
bias  very  largely  from  its  intellectual  convictions,  and 
that  does  not  readily  change  its  emotional  attitude.  (Not 
infrequently,  however,  the  emotional  type  that  feels 
strongly,  with  lasting  likes  and  dislikes,  is  coupled  with 
the  narrower  intellectual  type.)  Here,  then,  are  very 
probable  ingredients  of  the  character  known  as  the 
Literalist. 

To  the  Literalist  things  are  what  they  seem.  To  him 
the  Scriptures  say  what  they  say  and  naught  beside. 
A  translation  from  Horace  must  give  an  English  equiva- 
lent for  each  Latin  word.  What  the  ancient  poet  said 
must  be  repeated  verbally  in  English.  Then  the  Literal- 
ist has  line  for  line  the  ancient  ode;  but  the  humour  and 
the  subtle  innuendoes  have  all  escaped.  The  Literalist 
must  have  just  what  Jesus  said.  To  see  humour  in  the 
story  of  the  man  straining  gnats  out  of  his  wine  and 
drinking  down  a  camel  is  to  see  what  is  not  in  Christ's 
words — for  the  Literalist.  To  find  a  Saviour  who  can- 
not be  known  part  by  part  is  impossible  to  the  mind  that 
is  forced  to  think  in  fractions.  It  takes  what  it  can, 
few  associations  rise  to  relate  its  new  impression  with  its 
old.  No  vistas  of  suggestion  open  deep  perspectives  and 
numerous  relations.  Things  stand  alone.  Relations  are 
few.  The  slow  and  narrow-spanned  mind  apprehends 
what  it  can  and  tries  to  relate  what  it  holds  in  terms 
that  are  within  its  compass.  It  makes  for  clearness.  It 


i84  THE  SECTS 

finds  logic  a  good  support.  It  seeks  to  arrange  its  find- 
ings in  a  logical,  clear  order,  that  they  may  be  grasped 
easily.  Truths  that  are  too  great  to  be  reduced  to 
formal  statements  are  not  truths  for  the  Literalist,  they 
are  vagaries.  The  many-sided  truths  of  the  Scriptures 
are  stripped  of  their  sides.  Three-dimensional  truths  are 
made  simple  linear  truths,  in  order  to  connect  them  to- 
gether and  to  give  an  intelligible  little  whole. 

The  Literalist  does  not  miss  the  higher  and  wider 
truths  of  life  because  he  wishes  to  do  so.  He  cannot 
help  it.  He  serves  his  fellows  by  keeping  them  from  un- 
due expansion  and  its  resulting  shallowness.  He  injures 
his  cause  by  clinging  to  the  little  he  can  find,  and  de- 
fending it  against  larger  issues  and  against  growth  and 
change.  He  does  not  grow.  He  does  not  feel  the  need 
for  growing.  He  TiasTuswhole  Truth.  It  satisfies  him. 
He  does  not  move.  Then  he  should  never  attempt  to 
lead.  But  he  does  attempt  it, — unfortunately. 

From  what  has  been  said  concerning  imagery  it  is 
possible  to  interpret  a  disposition  (among  people  of 
widely  separated  denominations)  to  use  a  ritual  in  their 
church  services.  We  have  seen  that  the  thinking  of 
many  people  is  quite  strongly  imaginal.  This  is  espe- 
cially so  if  they  have  not  done  a  great  deal  of  abstract 
thinking.  To  such  imaginative  minds  the  truths  which 
awaken  emotional  response  and  which  sustain  the  spirit- 
ual life  may  well  be  presented  by  impressions  upon  the 
senses.  These  impressions  afford  the  pigments  for  the 
imagination  to  paint  its  portrayals  of  the  truths  imparted 
in  the  services.  It  is  surprising  to  find  how  much  of  our 
thinking  is  full  of  imagery.*  Anything  that  helps  to 

*  J.  R.  Angell :  "  Imageless  Thought,"  Psychological  Review,  18, 
PP-  295-323- 


INTELLECTUAL  TYPES  185 

make  spiritual  truths  part  of  one's  life  is  certainly  of 
value.  This  seems  to  be  a  growing  conviction  in  many 
churches.  Puritan  churches,  which  for  generations  lived 
on  the  sermons  and  the  prayers,  are  giving  more  and 
more  of  their  services  to  ritual.  One  cannot  read  the 
introspection  of  anyone  strongly  of  the  motor  type  with- 
out seeing  the  important  part  that  movements  play  in 
his  thinking.*  To  kneel  helps  many  to  bring  their 
thoughts  into  a  devotional  line,  to  repeat  responses  aids 
many  in  fixing  their  minds  upon  a  lofty  theme;  to  rise, 
to  bow,  to  kneel  in  unison  brings  the  conception  of  fel- 
lowship to  some  who  would  otherwise  not  acquire  it. 

Such,  then,  are  a  few  of  the  elements  which  go  into 
the  making  of  the  intellectual  side  of  the  religious  nature. 
More  there  may  be;  but  for  the  argument  of  this  book 
these  are  sufficient. 

The  next  step  is  to  look  again  at  the  different  Natural 
Sects  and  to  discover  how  applicable  are  these  psy- 
chological principles  to  the  types  found  there. 

*  Rodolfo  Mondolfo :  "  Studi  sui  tipi  rappresentativi,"  Riv.  di 
filos.,  1909,  15,  PP.  39-92. 


XII 
THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT 

WE  have  seen  the  same  truths,  now,  from  several 
angles  6i  view.  We  have  seen  the  answers  of 
a  number  of  religious  people  to  the  questions 
concerning  the  bases  of  their  faith ;  and  in  those  answers 
it  was  clear  that  some  found  their  religious  experiences 
centring  around  intellectual  statements,  and  convictions; 
while  others  found  their  religious  life  welling  up  from 
what  seemed  to  be  life  itself,  from  the  fountain-head 
of  life,  the  emotions,  affections;  while  others  took  their 
religion  from  "authority,"  or  from  the  habits  of  their 
early  life,  and  merely  accepted  what  they  found,  fol- 
lowing their  habitual  impulse  and  imitating  others. 
Among  philosophers  the  same  three  kinds  of  centres 
gathered  their  peculiar  l^inds  of  definitions  of  religion. 
One  set  found  religion  in  the  intellectual  life;  another 
set  found  it  in  the  feelings;  and  a  third  found  it  in  con- 
duct or  activity.  This  last  set  would  correspond  to  the 
intellectual-action  type.  Now,  in  the  history  of  the 
sects  we  saw  how  those  sects  which  were  Natural  sects 
and  were  the  outcome  of  forces  at  work  within  their 
own  natures,  showed  the  same  disposition  to  express 
their  religion  in  three  kinds.  One  set  of  sects  empha- 
sized beliefs,  doctrines;  a  second  laid  the  stress  on  the 
experience  of  the  convert,  the  spiritual,  the  emotional 
life  of  the  follower  of  Christ;  while  a  third  called  out 

186 


y 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT        187 

the  impulses  and  aroused  the  instinctive  responses  in 
their  followers.  A  study  of  human  nature  showed  how 
the  different  periods  in  an  individual's  life  shifted  the 
balance  of  the  forces  controlling  his  nature.  In  the  early 
years  instinct  and  imitation  are  the  chief  factors.  In 
youth  the  emotional  nature  asserts  itself,  while  in  matu- 
rity the  intellectual  dominates.  A  further  study  of  these 
three  great  characteristics  of  human  nature  showed  a^ 
number  of  minor  traits  coupled  with  the  larger.  The 
task  in  the  present  chapter  is  a  very  difficult  one.  It  is 
nothing  less  than  the  characterization  of  each  of  the  im- 
portant denominations  according  to  its  more  conspicuous 
natural  traits. 

Such  a  hazardous  undertaking  must  be  suggestive 
only.  It  cannot  be  absolutely  accurate.  Many  misin- 
terpretations must  creep  in  despite  every  effort.  Never- 
theless, so  broad  and  so  evident  are  many  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  number  of  these  sects  that  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  characterize  them.  Of  course,  what  is  said  of  a 
sect  as  a  whole  does  not  apply  to  every  individual  in 
it.  Indeed,  a  very  large  number  of  the  members  of  any 
denomination  may  be  of  quite  a  different  type  from  that 
assigned  to  the  sect  as  a  whole.  Then,  too,  the  sects  are 
changing  in  many  of  their  peculiarities.  What  was  very 
true  of  them  a  few  decades  ago  is  not  so  true  now. 
However,  it  is  quite  practicable  to  assign  a  general  char- 
acter to  many  distinctive  sects  and  to  indicate  roughly 
what  sort  of  an  emotional,  intellectual  and  practical  life 
they  have. 

With  these  cautions  in  mind  a  number  of  sects  are  de- 
scribed below.  These  descriptions  are  based  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  sect,  the  character  of  its  service,  its  creeds, 
activities,  interests  and  personnel. 


i88  THE  SECTS 

THE  ADVEiixis.is  were  originality  an  impulsive-emo- 
tional people.  They  acted  out  the  expectation  which  had 
been  awakened  in  them.  They  were  imitative.  The  con- 
tagion of  their  fear  and  hope  spread  widely,  among 
their  type.  They  were  not  dominantly  intellectual, — or 
the  ideas  of  the  farmer,  William  Miller,  would  never 
have  taken  hold  upon  them.  They  passed  from  the  heat 
of  this  early  excitement,  when  Miller's  predictions  proved 
false.  Then  the  denomination  settled  into  the  emotional- 
doctrinal  type,  letting  the  enthusiasm  which  gave  the 
sect  birth  gather  around  the  conceptions  of  Christ's  com- 
ing and  the  seventh  day  as  a  Sabbath. 

The  Adventists  are  a  very  good  example  of  a  common 
process  in  church  history.  First  comes  the  overwhelming 
emotionalism,  then  reconstruction  and  a  gathering  of 
certain  doctrines  and  beliefs  peculiar  to  the  movement. 
After  this  the  settling  and  hardening  of  these  beliefs 
into  the  mainstay  of  the  church.  This  latter  stage  is 
the  dogmatic. 

A  typical  Adventist  is  not  of  the  alert,  quick,  mental 
type,  with  a  wide  range  of  intellectual  interests.  He  is 
directed  in  his  thought  life  and  held  to  his  beliefs  very 
largely  by  his  feelings.  His  experience  of  religion  ex- 
presses itself  in  actions  of  a  certain  kind,  i.e.,  observ- 
ances of  his  church.  It  is  not  the  tumultuous  emotion 
of  the  revivalist,  or  the  subdued  emotion  of  the  intel- 
lectualist;  but  rather  the  emotion  incident  to,  as  well  as 
productive  of,  his  beliefs.  He  is  usually  of  the  dogmatic 
type. 

THE  gAPTiSTS^comprise  many  bodies,  and  some  shift- 
ing in  accentuation  of  traits  occurs  as  one  reviews  the 
different  bodies.  So  great  is  the  membership  that  all 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT        189 

sections  of  the  United  States  are  represented.  This 
gives  a  difference  in  the  spirit  of  different  branches  of 
the  church.  The  more  rigid  doctrinaires  are  found  in 
the  Primitive  Baptist  churches,  which  are  most  numer- 
ous in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Tennessee. 
In  the  North  the  Calvinism  is  not  so  strong.* 

Throughout  the  Baptist  bodies  there  are  these  general 
tendencies:  an  insistence  upon  the  letter  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  such  matters  as  Immersion,  Infant  Baptism  and 
Close  Communion;  that  is,  an  insistence  upon  certain 
isolated  teachings  of  the  Bible  adhered  to  in  a  literal 
way.  This  is  the  mark  of  the  Literalist.  The  type  of 
mind  which  can  survey  the  canons  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  and  discriminate  values,  grasp  the  vital 
spirit  of  the  whole,  and  subordinate  the  particular  to 
the  general,  is  not  a  type  which  animates  the  entire 
Baptist  Church  to-day.  Baptist  religion  is  the  issue  in 
many  parts  of  the  denomination.  This  makes  for  a 
centrifugal  sort  of  a  life.  The  young  people  were  en- 
couraged to  start  their  own  organizations  when  the 
Young  People's  Christian  Endeavour  Societies  sought  to 
gather  in  all  young  people  of  all  denominations. 

The  genuine  Baptist  is  not  the  wide-visioned  type; 
his  mind  gravitates  to  particulars.  He  varies  in  his  emo- 
tional nature  from  the  conversion  type  (which  passes 
through  a  definite  religious  experience),  to  the  emo- 
tional-dogmatic type  (which  lives  in  the  attachment  to 
certain  creeds). 

THE  CHRISTIANS  (Christian  Connection)  are  a  very 
good,  representative  American  sect ;  they  reflect  the  aver- 

*  See  A.  H.  Newman :  "  A  History  of  the  Baptist  Churches 
in  the  United  States." 


190  THE  SECTS 

age  qualities  of  the  American  people  very  well.  It  is  a 
sect  which  has  grown  up  with  the  Middle  West.  Three 
other  sects,  the  Presbyterian,  Baptist  and  Methodist, 
entered  into  its  origin.  Each  of  these  separated  from  its 
parent  body  in  the  effort  to  get  a  greater  freedom.  Later 
they  discovered  that  they  had  much  in  common  and 
formed  a  union.  Unity  among  Christians  has  been  one 
of  their  chief  tenets.  They  hold  to  no  creed  or  con- 
fession to  give  unity  to  their  sect,  but  rely  upon  the 
Christian's  life  and  religious  nature  to  supply  the  binding 
ties.  In  their  earlier  career  they  were  more  emotional 
than  to-day, — witness,  the  influence  of  Millerism  upon 
their  order. 

Intellectually,  the  Christians,  while  sympathetic  and 
open  to  other  conceptions  than  their  own,  are  not  of  a 
vigorous,  constructive  type.  The  intellectual  life  is  not 
of  primary  importance.  But  the  life  of  "  experience  " 
is  of  great  importance.  This  does  not  make  for  the 
conversion  type  so  much  as  for  a  more  stable,  uniform, 
emotional  life.  The  emotion  is  not  of  the  austere  char- 
acter, but  rather  of  the  wholesome,  optimistic  sort, 
which  is  congenial  to  a  new  and  growing  section  of  the 
country. 

COLOURED  DENOMINATIONS  are  very  much  the  same 
in  religious  type  whatever  name  they  may  assume.  As 
they  have  been  discussed  before,  all  that  need  be  said 
here  is  that  they  are  of  the  conversion-emotional  type, 
subject  to  impulse  and  to  imitation.  They  are  imitating 
the  churches  of  the  white  people,  in  the  large  cities,  and 
this  coupled  with  an  improvement  in  education,  makes 
for  a  more  sober  and  uniform  life  than  is  seen  where 
their  native  impulses  are  given  greater  freedom. 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT        191 

THE  CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE  MOVEMENT  has  been  de- 
scribed from  the  viewpoint  of  this  book.  It  remains  to 
be  added  that  Christian  Science  has  recruited  its  mem- 
bership, not  from  rural  communities  nor  from  the  il- 
literate of  the  cities,  but  from  people  in  many  sects  in 
many  cities;  often  from  the  wealthy  classes.  The  in- 
tellectual factor  may  well  be  this,  many  people  have  been 
brought  up  to  believe  creeds  which  are  very  hard  to 
hold  in  later  years,  Christian  Science  offers  an  escape 
from  the  puzzling  creeds!  Furthermore,  the  mind  that 
could  accept  some  of  the  ultra-orthodox  creeds  is  pre- 
pared to  accept  the  strange  tenets  of  Mrs.  Eddy.  Never- 
theless, the  intellectual  element  is  not  the  actuating  one 
in  drawing  recruits.  Rather  the  emotional  and  the  auto- 
suggestible  nature  is  the  chief  promoter, — and  such  a 
nature  is  often  found  in  all  classes  of  society,  but  it  is 
not  a  usual  accompaniment  of  a  strong  intellectual 
power. 

The  Christian  Scientist  is  of  the  impulsive,  emotional 
type  and  the  intellectual,  literalist  type. 

THE  CONGREGATIONALISTS  have  gone  in  an  opposite 
direction  to  that  taken  by  many  sects.  For  instead  of 
starting  with  emotional  enthusiasm  and  cooling  down  to 
doctrinal  statements  of  what  they  should  hold  as  in- 
fallible rules  of  faith  and  practice,  their  past  history 
has  been  replete  with  doctrine  and  theology,  while  their 
present  life  is  absorbed  in  ethical,  educational  and  devo- 
tional interests. 

The  average  Congregationalist  is  alert  intellectually, 
with  broad  interests  and  a  sympathetic  outlook  upon 
other  faiths  than  his  own.  Emotionally,  he  believes  him- 
self to  be  above  emotionalism.  His  interest  in  educa- 


192  THE  SECTS 

tion  emphasizes  this.  But  there  is  an  emotional  life  in 
the  sect  which  expresses  itself  in  a  number  of  practical 
ways,  and,  also,  in  the  aesthetic  side  of  the  church  serv- 
ices. It  is  not  the  conversion  type  or  the  dogmatic  type, 
but  a  type  which  arises  naturally  in  connection  with 
broad  intellectual  interests  and  a  vigorous  altruism.  The 
Congregationalist  is  liberal-minded,  with  an  optimistic 
emotional  trait.  His  church  spreads  easily  in  the  North 
and  West,  but  does  not  take  root  in  the  South. 

THE  DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST  is  another  sect  which  has 
thriven  with  the  Middle  West,  and  which  is  representa- 
tive of  the  spirit  of  fraternity  in  this  country.  Though 
it  sprang  from  Baptist  sources  and  holds  to  some  Bap- 
tist peculiarities,  it  is  avowedly  without  a  creed.  The 
Bible  alone  is  its  faith.  It  holds  as  one  of  its  cherished 
convictions  the  unity  of  the  churches. 

The  membership  is  of  average  American  people.  It  is 
not  of  a  strongly  intellectual  cast,  but  it  is  open-minded 
and  tolerant  in  rather  a  larger  measure  than  is  to  be 
expected  in  a  body  which  adheres  rather  strictly  to  the 
letter  of  a  part  of  the  Scripture.  It  is  hardly  fair  to 
say  it  is  of  the  Literal  type;  nor  yet,  of  the  obviously 
Liberal.  Emotionally,  it  is  of  the  experiential,  not  the 
impulsive,  or  the  dogmatic,  type;  with  the  wholesome 
fervour  which  makes  for  expansion  and  improve- 
ment. 

A  division  from  the  Disciples  appears  in  the  Churches 
of  Christ.  This  sect  is  composed  of  members  who  were 
not  comfortable  among  the  Disciples.  They  resented 
the  growth  of  agencies  to  assist  in  church  work  or  serv- 
ice, such  as  missionary  societies,  or  instrumental  music. 
Eventually  they  separated  from  the  other  body.  Here  is 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT        193 

a  clear  case  of  difference  in  religious  types.  With  the 
same  heritage  and  in  the  same  age,  under  the  same  gen- 
eral influences  one  type  tends  in  one  direction,  the  other 
in  another. 

Intellectually,  this  division  is  more  of  the  Literalist 
type  than  its  parent  body.  It  seeks  a  "  Thus  saith  the 
Lord  "  for  its  support.  It  claims  to  speak  only  of  what 
the  Scriptures  speak.  It  is  moved  by  the  desire  for 
particulars,  for  details;  rather  than  for  the  large  and 
inclusive  spirit  which  leaves  details  to  the  individual 
judgment.  In  the  emotional  sphere  there  is  less  of 
the  optimistic  wholesomeness  and  more  of  the  austere 
introspection. 

THE  DUNKERS  are  the  descendants  of  the  splendid 
movement  which  sought  to  put  real,  religious  life  into 
that  barren  period  of  church  history  which  succeeded 
the  Reformation.  The  two  largest  bodies  of  Dunkers 
in  America  are  the  Conservative  and  the  Progressive. 
Among  the  Conservatives  there  is  a  strict  adherence  to 
the  letter  of  the  Scripture.  As  Jesus  washed  His  dis- 
ciples' feet  so  do  the  Dunkers.  Jesus'  dress  was  simple, 
theirs  is  very  plain.  Jesus  had  no  home,  they  eschew 
all  finery  in  a  house,  such  as  carpets  and  pictures.  In 
the  times  of  Christ  the  sick  were  anointed  with  oil ;  this, 
also,  the  Dunkers  do.  When  Christ  was  crucified  His 
head  fell  forward.  When  the  Dunkers  baptize  it  is  with 
the  head  forward.  The  educational  interests  are  centred 
very  thoroughly  upon  the  Bible. 

Here,  then,  is  a  Literalism  of  a  rather  thoroughgoing 
kind.  It  has  selected  a  group  of  incidents  around  which 
it  builds  its  life.  The  isolation  of  the  Dunkers,  also, 
makes  for  a  narrow  horizon  intellectually.  Emotionally 


194  THE  SECTS 

they  are  not  of  the  explosive  type  but  rather  of  the 
dogmatic-emotional  type.  This  expresses  itself  not  so 
much  in  creeds  as  in  an  everyday  activity. 

The  Progressive  branch  does  not  insist  on  different 
ideas  but  upon  a  release  from  the  restriction  of  the  or- 
ganization, so  that  each  member  shall  have  more  freedom. 
The  movement  is  more  in  keeping  with  the  age.  Its 
natural  outcome  is  to  get  rid  of  the  bizarre  and  to  con- 
form more  to  the  times.  The  Progressives  are  nearer 
to  the  "  intellectual-emotional "  side  of  the  series  of 
types  and  further  from  the  "  action-emotional "  than  the 
Conservatives. 

THE  EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION  grew  up  from  the 
labours  of  Jacob  Albright,  who  was  converted  and  had 
a  profound  religious  experience  when  he  was  thirty  years 
of  age.  The  chief  interest  of  the  sect  is  in  the  spiritual 
life,  in  a  development  which  is  known  as  "  Sanctifica- 
tion."  In  this  state  of  feeling  one  cares  nothing  for  the 
temptations  to  yield  to  other  pleasures.  The  "  peace, 
joy  and  rest "  of  this  state  are  of  such  worth  that  noth- 
ing can  purchase  them.  The  doctrines  are  simple  and 
orthodox.  The  educational  interests  are  limited. 

This  is  primarily  an  experiential  type.  It  is  nearer 
the  impulsive,  the  instinctive  end  of  the  scale  of  emo- 
tional types  than  to  the  intellectual  end.  The  ecstatic 
experiences  are  sometimes  of  the  nature  of  motor- 
automatisms.  It  is  of  the  cheerful,  hopeful  character 
of  emotion  rather  than  the  austere  and  repressive.  It 
enjoys  a  wonderful  experience  which  is  a  source  of 
strength  and  delight,  and  it  wishes  to  spread  this  treas- 
ure abroad.  Intellectually  there  is  little  of  moment;  the 
intellectual  life  being  led  by  the  emotional. 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT        195 

THE  FRIENDS  of  to-day  are  divided  and  dissimilar  in 
several  particulars.  The  conservative  wing  is  certainly 
of  a  more  emotional,  experiential  type  than  the  progres- 
sive wing.  The  "  Inner  Light "  means  more  to  a  man 
prompted  by  feelings  than  to  one  who  is  guided  more  by 
his  thinking.  The  progressive  element  express  their  re- 
ligion more  by  ethical  and  educational  work  than  in  their 
devotional  experience. 

THE  LATTER-DAY  SAINTS  have  lost  the  fervour  and 
the  excess  of  the  originators.  Their  religious  life  cen- 
tres around  practical  and  executive  matters  rather  than 
spiritual  experience.  Education  has  received  consider- 
able attention  and  encouragement.  The  type  of  mem- 
ber is  not  broad,  intellectually,  but  rather  the  literalist 
type,  and  the  dogmatic-emotional. 

THE  LUTHERANS,  with  their  twenty-four  bodies,  are 
alike  in  holding  to  doctrine  as  preeminent.  Justification 
before  God  by  means  of  faith  is  the  central  conviction. 
"  Faith  "  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  intellectual  assent 
but  also  an  emotional  matter  in  that  the  believer  accepts 
Christ  in  a  personal  way.  Their  church  history  is  full 
of  theological  battles.  The  understanding  of  doctrines 
has  been  of  first  importance.  Education  is  encouraged, 
and  the  education  of  the  youth  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
church  is  a  prominent  part  of  the  church  work ;  for  the 
child  is  brought  up  to  pass  from  the  Sunday-school  to 
the  church  as  a  natural  process, — no  radical  religious 
experience  being  expected. 

The  type  is  in  the  nature  of  the  literal  which  makes 
for  a  dogmatic  adherence  to  established  doctrines  and  the 
emotional  life  is  around  these  conceptions. 


196  THE  SECTS 

THE  METHODISTS  show  a  range  of  religious  types 
from  the  impulsive,  explosive  member  in  a  Southern 
country  church  to  the  sedate,  orderly  attendant  in  a 
Northern  city.  Wherever  a  Methodist  worships  the 
chief  feature  is  the  spiritual  life,  however,  and  not  a 
doctrinal  conviction,  or  a  special  ritual,  or  an  order  of 
observances. 

Intellectually  the  type  is  alert  and  imaginative.  But 
abstract  thinking,  or  concentrated,  persistent  thinking 
upon  the  subjects  of  their  faith  is  not  characteristic. 
First  in  their  interest  is  the  conversion  of  the  sinner  and 
the  experience  of  religion.  This  experience  is  sometimes 
violent,  sometimes  gentle,  but  it  is  definite  enough  to 
be  recognized.  The  emotional  nature  is  rather  of  the 
expansive,  cheerful  sort  than  the  austere,  and  seeks  to 
hold  the  Christian  to  the  life  of  devotion  by  its  at- 
tractiveness rather  than  by  instilling  a  hatred  of  "  world- 
liness."  It  is,  in  general,  a  conversion-emotional  type. 

THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  history  is  full  of  the 
clash  of  doctrines.  It  is  a  church  whose  origin  expressed 
a  logical  system  of  faith.  Calvin's  orderly  convictions 
have  always  been  in  the  foreground  of  the  church.  It 
has  appealed  to  the  intellectual  side  of  its  followers  in 
a  peculiar  way.  It  has  not  followed  the  purely  intellec- 
tual course  of  leaving  matters  open  to  reasoning,  but  has 
asserted  its  premises  and  demanded  an  acceptance. 
There  is  a  type  of  mind  which  can  formulate  doctrines 
and,  by  an  act  of  the  will  rather  than  the  judgment, 
adopt  them  as  true.  This,  the  Scotch-Irish  can  do. 
Having  accepted  them,  it  is  a  matter  of  determination 
rather  than  reason  how  long  they  shall  be  held.  One 
early  Presbyterian  prayed,  "  Grant  that  I  may  always 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT        197 

be  right,  for  Thou  knowest  I  am  hard  to  turn."  Those 
early  Presbyterians  insisted  upon  an  educated  ministry, 
and  insisted  to  such  an  extent  that  the  church  suffered. 
This  dogmatic  nature  varies  in  its  types.  In  a  contro- 
versy of  the  last  century,  which  resulted  in  a  division  in 
the  sect,  such  a  difference  appeared.  "  When  the  separa- 
tion was  complete  it  was  found  that  the  new  school  em- 
braced about  four-ninths  of  the  ministry  and  member- 
ship of  the  church,  mostly  lying  in  the  Northern  States. 
It  coincided  in  the  main  with  the  lines  of  discrimina- 
tion between  Scotch-Irish  and  New  England  elements,  as 
it  grew  largely  out  of  the  incompatibility  of  their 
tempers."* 

The  intellectual  type  is  rather  of  the  narrow  type,  in- 
sisting upon  a  distinct,  logical  clearness  of  conceptions 
rather  than  large,  broad,  elastic  conceptions.  It  is 
literal  rather  than  poetic  (op.  cit.,  p.  220).  The  emo- 
tional side  is  a  product  of  the  intellectual  rather  than 
productive  of  it.  Consequently  the  sect  easily  becomes 
dogmatic.  Of  course  the  levelling  influences  of  the 
age  smooth  away  many  of  the  conspicuous  features 
which  showed  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  sect. 

THE  PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  contains  many 
different  kinds  of  religious  natures.  It  calls  for  no 
striking  religious  experience  and  makes  no  great  de- 
mands upon  intellectual  assent  to  difficult  doctrines.  A 
child  of  Episcopal  parents  naturally  grows  up  into  the 
church  whether  he  be  strongly  emotional  or  intellectual. 
The  history  of  the  church  in  this  country  is  rather 
free  from  doctrinal  battles  and  emotional  crises.  There 
are  general  trends  toward  High  Church  or  Low  Church, 

*  R.  E.  Thompson :  "  The  Presbyterians,"  p.  120. 


198  THE  SECTS 

which  may  indicate  the  native  preferences  of  the  mem- 
bership as  it  is  appealed  to  aesthetically,  or  intellectually. 
The  typical  Episcopalian  should  be  the  type  which  is 
aided  in  his  thinking  and  feeling  by  participation  in  ac- 
tion, the  motor  type  of  ideation.  He  should  be  the 
imaginative  type  responsive  to  the  appeals  to  his  aesthetic 
nature.  Abstract,  logical  thought  need  not  be  an  asset. 
Deep  emotional  experience  is  not  called  for.  Many 
classes  can  and  are  attracted  to  the  services  of  this  sect. 
While  many  others  find  it  intolerable;  as  it  does  not 
appeal  strongly  enough  to  the  emotions,  or  rigorously 
enough  to  the  mind,  to  suit  them. 

THE  UNITARIAN  CHURCH,  concerning  which  so  much 
has  already  been  said,  needs  a  very  brief  notice  only  to  be 
given  here. 

Many  people  who  find  they  cannot  hold  the  beliefs 
of  their  youth  find  a  church  home  among  the  Uni- 
tarians. This  tends  to  keep  the  intellectual  feature  in 
the  foreground  and  to  emphasize  a  difference  between 
Unitarians  and  other  churches.  The  interest  of  the 
church  is  cultural,  educational  and  ethical.  It  looks 
for  salvation  through  the  growth  in  the  individual's 
character.  It  is  primarily  intellectual  and  the  emotions 
are  aesthetic. 

THE  UNITED  BRETHREN  were  the  outgrowth  of  the 
energetic  work  of  Otterbein  in  the  last  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  His  wa.s  a  deeply  spiritual  nature  and  he 
impressed  the  need  of  a  devout  life  upon  his  followers. 
The  church  divided  about  twenty-five  years  ago  and 
has  its  progressive  and  conservative  wings,  as  do  so 
many  other  sects.  In  character  it  is  largely  Methodist, 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT        199 

with  which  body  it  has  been  closely  related.  Its  first 
labours  were  among  the  German  people  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland,  and  there  are  many  of  German  extraction 
in  the  membership  to-day. 

It  is  not  of  a  dominantly  intellectual  type.  The  Jn- 
tellectual  life  is  rather  subordinated  to  the  religious  ex- 
perience. 'It  is  an  experiential  type  and  tends  rather 
to  the  conversion  type  than  the  dogmatic. 

THE  UNIVERSALIST  CHURCHES  have  much  in  common 
with  the  Unitarian.  They  have  rather  more  doctrinal 
interest  and  less  broad  educational  aspirations.  Emo- 
tionally they  are  rather  more  responsive  than  the  Uni- 
tarians, and  have  rallied  around  their  doctrinal  conten- 
tions concerning  the  future  life  in  a  manner  rather 
characteristic  of  the  dogmatic-emotional  type.  They  are 
like  the  several  other  sects  in  which  we  could  not  dis- 
cover any  vigorous  emotional  or  intellectual  life.  Per- 
haps, like  these  other  sects,  they  do  not  put  much  of  their 
life  into  their  religion. 

These  brief  descriptions  are  nothing  more  than  out- 
line sketches.  They  include  only  the  broad,  clear  trac- 
ings which  give  form  and  character.  When  they  are 
arranged  in  the  order  of  progression  from  the  impulsive, 
imitative  Action  Types  up  to  the  altruistic  Intellectual 
Types  their  similarities  and  dissimilarities  can  easily  be 
compared.  In  the  table  below  the  several  headings  must 
not  be  understood  as  distinct  and  separate  from  each 
other;  for  they  should,  of  course,  run  into  each  other. 
No  sharp  lines  can  be  drawn  between  the  types  and  sub- 
types, and  the  headings  indicate  merely  a  prominence 
of  the  feature  described.  Thus  the  imitative-instinctive 


200  THE  SECTS 

type  shades  into  the  suggestible,  especially  into  an  auto- 
suggestible  type.  This  passes  into  a  stage  where  the 
emotional  nature,  which  runs  through  all  the  types,  is 
effective  in  bringing  changes  into  the  religious  life 
through  conversions.  This  conversion  type  melts  away 
into  a  type  more  given  to  controlling  its  emotions  in- 
tellectually but  with  an  active  emotional  disposition. 
This,  in  turn,  fades  into  a  type  in  which  the  intellect 
seeks  to  hold  what  the  emotions  have  found  satisfying 
or  when  the  emotions  are  enlisted  in  what  the  intellect 
has  found  acceptable.  From  such  a  type  we  proceed 
into  a  type  which  lets  the  intellectual  shape  the  religious 
life,  in  very  large  measure,  and  which  exercises  more 
refined  and  aesthetic  than  strong  and  moving  emotions, 
altruism  being  one  mode  of  expression  for  its  emotions, 
and  the  series  ends  in  a  strongly  intellectual  nature 
which  overrides  both  the  aesthetic  and  altruistic. 

The  line  beside  the  name  of  each  sect  indicates  the 
religious  type  or  types  under  which  it  is  classed.  Thus, 
the  Baptists  range  from  the  Conversion  and  the  Emo- 
tional Types  to  the  Dogmatic.  In  several  cases  a  con- 
tinued dotted  line  signifies  that  a  small  proportion  of 
the  sect  is  to  be  found  in  the  several  Types  under  which 
the  line  runs. 

This  arrangement  shows  at  a  glance  the  relations  of 
the  different  sects  to  each  other  when  they  are  classi- 
fied according  to  their  psychological  characteristics. 
Thus,  the  old  story  is  told  once  more.  That  the  emo- 
tional nature  is  the  mainspring  of  the  religious  life  and 
that  the  religion  of  all  the  sects  is  "  touched  with  emo- 
tion." The  prominence  of  other  qualities  in  conjunction 
with  emotion  appears  in  many  sects  which  are  socially 
and  historically  wide  apart.  In  a  number  of  cases  the 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  HIS  SECT       201 


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202  THE  SECTS 

religious  types  are  quite  close  together.  But  the  tenets 
they  hold  are  far  apart,  so  far,  indeed,  that  the  real 
similarities  of  the  types  are  obscured  in  ordinary  obser- 
vation. 

The  table  cannot  show  all  the  relations  of  the  sects 
in  all  their  traits.  The  very  scheme  of  the  arrangement 
precludes  that.  Also,  the  traits  of  the  Literalist  and  of 
the  Liberal  are  not  shown.  It  is  not  designed  to  tell  any 
such  an  exact  story  as  Mendel-eefFs  table  of  chemical 
elements,  where  the  character  of  the  elements  changes 
as  you  read  across  the  table,  and  changes  with  precision 
and  certainty.  Our  table  is  suggestive  of  great,  though 
subtle  relations.  Time  and  research  will  unquestionably 
modify  it  in  many  details,  but  not  in  the  general  truths 
which  it  obviously  teaches. 


XIII 
LEVELLING  FORCES 

IN    nature    the    most    conspicuous     forces    are    the 
cataclysmic  forces.    They  rend  and  heave  and  twist 
the  rocks  and  lift  the  mountain  crags.     Less  spec- 
tacular are  the  forces  which  level  down ;  they  smooth  the 
hills  away  and  fill  the  valley  hollows.    The  great  forces 
that  make  for  irregularity  are  met  the  world  over  by  the 
forces  which  make  for  regularity.    The  mountain  heights 
are  slowly  swept  away  to  make  the  level  fields  of  the 
valley. 

So  in  society,  war  disrupts,  immigration  thrusts  in 
new  social  strata,  dissension  gives  rise  to  opposing 
parties;  these  and  other  forces  make  the  differences  in 
the  social  order.  Opposing  them  are  the  forces  which 
heal  differences,  smooth  over  disparities,  that  both  level 
up  and  level  down. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  the  differences  between  re- 
ligious people  were  emphasized  at  considerable  length. 
The  way  in  which  the  differences  of  the  Old  World 
came  over  into  the  American  Church,  the  way  in  which 
the  Civil  War  disrupted  the  Church,  the  schisms  of 
polity  and  doctrine  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  nat- 
ural differences  in  human  nature,  were  all  presented 
and  fully  discussed.  In  the  midst  of  these  descriptions  of 
disruptions  and  secessions  nothing  was  said  of  the  great 
agencies  which  are  at  work  in  healing  the  scars  of  con- 

203 


204  THE  SECTS 

flict  and  in  bringing  peace  and  harmony  among  those 
whose  differences  arise  in  so  many  ways. 

In  this  chapter  some  of  these  levelling  forces  will  be 
pointed  out  as  they  spread  in  society  in  general,  and  in 
the  Church  in  particular. 

In  America  unquestionably  the  public  school  is  the 
greatest  institution  for  levelling  down  differences  in  the 
social  order.  Here  the  English  language  is  an  indis- 
pensable means  of  bringing  the  children  of  all  nations 
together  in  thought.  It  is  the  vehicle  of  Anglo-Saxon 
ideas,  ideals  and  achievements.  With  the  same  lan- 
guage children  whose  parents  came  from  Northern 
Europe  and  from  Southern  Europe  enter  into  the  litera- 
ture of  America.  It  is  of  the  very  first  importance  that 
the  newcomers  to  our  shores  thinKT  their  thoughts  in  our 
language  as  well  as  receive  their  thoughts  from  our  litera- 
ture; for  a  common  language  helps  to  mould  thoughts, 
in  common.  Other  studies  are  taken  up  by  the  children 
of  all  countries  and  from  all  kinds  of  homes,  and  to- 
gether they  mature  in  their  education.  This  maturity 
is  something  they  share  with  each  other,  they  feel  they 
have  grown  in  their  intellectual  lives  and  that  their 
growth  is  a  possession  which  they  hold  in  common. 
Working  together  makes  for  mutual  understanding  and 
mutual  good- feeling.  In  the  recreation  hours  these  chil- 
dren with  their  diverse  heritages  mingle  and  engage  in 
those  games  which  are  characteristic  of  American  chil- 
dren; games  which  call  for  fair  play,  for  treating  each 
player  upon  the  basis  of  his  natural  merits  only.  There 
is  no  place  for  pretensions  here.  Quick  wits  and  good 
muscles,  whether  possessed  by  Swede  or  Italian,  make 
the  leaders.  The  most  important  factor  is  the  teacher. 
From  her  the  best  that  America  has  to  give  is  imparted 


LEVELLING  FORCES  205 

to  the  young.  Often  these  public-school  teachers  are 
women  and  men  of  very  fine  character.  More  than 
their  information  is  imparted  to  their  pupils;  their  good 
nature,  frankness,  civility  and  even  courage  are  con- 
tagious. Thus,  a  number  of  subtle  forces  play  upon  the 
future  citizens  of  the  nation  and  smooth  down  the  dif- 
ferences incident  to  birth;  and  impart  many  qualities 
which  in  later  life  mark  them  as  typical  Americans. 
These  youths  often  come  to  our  colleges  and  universities, 
and  so  thoroughly  has  the  work  of  the  public  schools  been 
done  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  what  nationality  is  repre- 
sented if  it  were  not  for  some  peculiarity  in  the  names, 
which  tell  the  story  of  ancestors'  homes  in  Scotland, 
Sweden,  Germany  or  other  lands. 

After  school  life,  when  these  children  of  foreign  par- 
ents begin  to  earn  a  living,  they  naturally  drop  into  or- 
ganizations; trade  or  labour  unions,  social  and  fraternal 
orders.  In  every  society  the  "  peculiar  man  "  is  taboo. 
So  the  unusual  individual  seeks  to  imitate  the  ideas  and 
feelings  of  his  fellows.  He  merges  into  his  set  and  be- 
comes a  part  of  the  great  whole. 

Less  visible  are  the  unorganized  agencies,  especially 
what  is  called  "  social  pressure."  Fashion  is  the  great 
example  of  this.  The  styles  of  ten  years  ago  seem  ab- 
surd, they  actually  look  ugly;  styles  of  to-day  are  un- 
doubtedly just  as  ugly.  Why  do  they  not  appear  so 
ugly?  The  reason  seems  to  be  that  great  numbers  of 
people  approve  them;  what  is  admired  by  many  becomes 
a  standard  for  the  individual  and  a  sort  of  mutual  as- 
sistance is  rendered,  each  one  lending  another  aid  in 
admiring  the  unadmirable.  So  of  important  things.  Be- 
liefs which  fifteen  years  ago  were  extravagant  are  now 
quite  possible.  Many  a  man  who  held  that  the  tenets 


206  THE  SECTS 

of  socialism  were  unthinkable  admits  to-day  "  that  there 
is  something  in  them."  Or,  to  go  still  further  back, 
how  hard  it  is  to  imagine  the  convictions  of  a  slave- 
holder ;  though  we  know  that  excellent  and  educated  peo- 
ple did  own  slaves.  Public  opinion,  the  social  mind, 
brings  individuals  into  line.  Not  ideas  alone,  but  taste 
may  be  imparted  by  public  opinion.  Compare  the  plays, 
operas,  newspapers  and  recreations  of  different  peo- 
ples at  different  times.  The  aesthetic  feelings  may  be 
cultivated  in  an  individual  by  his  social  surroundings. 
Not  a  few  people  have  acquired  a  taste  for  classical 
music  because  others  of  their  social  set  frequented  the 
operas.  The  moral  feelings,  too,  are  educated  in  the  in- 
dividual by  the  society  in  which  he  lives;  there  is  to- 
day a  growing  sentiment  concerning  the  responsibility  of 
each  individual  to  his  fellowmen.  One  can  detect  the 
increase  of  this  sentiment  in  the  last  two  decades.  We 
must  conclude,  therefore,  that  our  age  impresses  certain 
ideas  upon  the  minds  of  people  and  also  inspires  them 
with  certain  feelings.  In  both  the  intellectual  and  the 
emotional  life  social  environment  manufactures  citizens 
of  a  certain  great  type.  How  easy  jt  is  to  detect  an 
American  abroad!  How  quickly  we  recognize  his 
thoughts  and  his  feelings;  they  are  so  characteristic 
of  the  nation  from  which  he  comes. 

This  social  environment  exercises  its  influence  only 
where  there  is  a  certain  density  of  population.  In  thinly 
settled  parts  of  the  country  there  is  very  little  of  this. 
Cities  are  the  centres  of  social  influence.  Isolation 
assists  individuality  and  increases,  or  at  least  maintains, 
diverse  types.  Communication,  constant  interchange  of 
thoughts  and  purposes,  shape  people  to  mutual  resem- 
blances. The  cities  tend  to  fashion  their  inhabitants 


LEVELLING  FORCES  207 

after  one  general  pattern,  giving  them  certain  fashions, 
manners,  customs,  morals  and  ideas.  A  new  concep- 
tion will  spread  through  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  and 
leap  to  other  cities.  The  American  Revolution,  the  move- 
ment against  slavery,  the  single  tax,  socialism,  all  origi- 
nated and  gathered  headway  in  the  cities.  Of  old,  Chris- 
tianity spread  first  through  the  cities.  The  country  peo- 
ple, the  pagani}  were  the  pagans. 

What  bearing  has  all  this  upon  the  religious  life  ?  How 
does  it  affect  the  problem  of  the  Sects?  It  shows  that, 
despite  the  various  ideas  advocated  by  the  different  de- 
nominations, there  are  forces  at  work  which  are  slowly 
clearing  away  these  differences.  The  public  schools  are 
giving  the  citizens  of  the  country  a  common  attitude  to- 
ward the  questions  of  life.  Men  who  have  been  edu- 
cated from  the  same  books  are  very  apt  to  acquire  the 
same  way  of  looking  at  things.  Millerism  could  not 
spread  to-day  as  it  did  a  half -century  ago.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  times  would  not  support  it.  Some  concep- 
tions spread  easily  and  widely  through  our  nation  be- 
cause they  are  congenial  to  the  conceptions  which  were 
inculcated  during  the  years  of  education.  Others  can 
make  no  headway  at  all  among  the  American  people. 

Among  the  leaders  of  the  Church  this  sameness  of  edu- 
cation has  had  a  very  beneficent  influence.  I  recall  a 
group  of  clergymen,  Baptists,  Congregationalists,  Pres- 
byterians and  Methodists,  who  were  in  thorough  accord 
in  their  thoughts  and  purposes.  Their  training  in  school, 
college  and  university  had  been  much  the  same,  and  their 
habits  of  thought  were  naturally  very  much  alike. 
Among  laymen  the  schools  and  the  newspapers,  maga- 
zines and  populajr  books  give  much  the  same  mental 
habits  to  everyone.  Questions  are  discussed  from  very 


2o8  THE  SECTS 

much  the  same  points  of  view,  issues  are  presented  in 
very  much  the  same  way ;  there  is  a  striking  sameness  in 
the  spirit  of  our  novels,  magazines  and  papers. 

Of  course  it  is  not  possible  that  any  sameness  of 
education  or  of  intellectual  impressions  from  sameness 
of  literature  should  produce  exactly  the  same  sorts  of 
minds.  That  is  not  claimed.  I  do  maintain,  with  Spen- 
cer, that  many  of  the  conceptions  of  our  fathers  are  not 
held  by  us  to-day  because  of  what  might  be  called  our 
intellectual  mood.  No  specific  arguments  are  forcing 
the  older  conceptions  out  of  our  churches,  but  a  sort  of 
mood  makes  it  impossible  to  receive  many  of  the  older 
notions  and  to  hold  them  as  true.  There  is  no  reason 
why  we  should  not  believe  in  witches  if  we  believe  in  the 
Bible,  nor  is  there  any  reason  for  not  believing  in  demon 
possession.  Nevertheless,  many  who  thoroughly  believe 
in  the  Bible  do  not  believe  in  these  absurdities.  They 
cannot  give  you  a  really  good  argument  why,  but  the 
simple  reason  is  that  such  beliefs  are  not  in  accord  with 
the  intellectual  mood  of  to-day,  even  among  the  rigidly 
orthodox. 

The  results  of  Bible  scholarship  and  the  mood  referred 
to  have  undoubtedly  done  some  harm,  yet  every  fair- 
minded  observer  must  acknowledge  that  this  newer  Bible 
scholarship  has  made  it  impossible  to  hold  to  some  of  the 
peculiar  interpretations  of  the  Bible  upon  which  a  num- 
ber of  Sects  have  built,  and  also  make  it  impossible  to 
champion  certain  practices.  No  young  minister  with  an 
honest  mind  who  has  carefully  studied  in  the  light  of 
present-day  scholarship  could  ever  think  of  the  Bible  as 
maintaining  and  defending  any  doctrine  of  Church 
Polity,  Close  Communion  or  Apostolic  Succession.  The 
old  methods  of  argument  and  contention  are  "now  inef- 


LEVELLING  FORCES  209 

fective.  Intelligent  and  educated  people  are  coming  to 
an  agreement  concerning  doctrines  upon  which  the 
Fathers  differed.  What  a  Reformation  it  would  be  if 
all  those  who  agreed  in  their  conceptions  of  things  re- 
ligious threw  off  their  sectarian  differences  and  united 
in  the  cause  of  Christ! 

In  addition  to  a  change  in  creeds  there  has  also  come 
a  change  in  spirit.  Not  only  is  it  impossible  to  believe 
what  was  commonly  believed  twenty-five  years  ago,  but 
it  is  also  impossible  to  feel  as  the  generation  before  us 
felt.  Why  are  there  no  sermons  on  Hell?  The  temper 
of  the  present  will  not  tolerate  them.  We  do  not  hear 
much  about  Calvin's  doctrines  of  predestination  and  the 
wholesale  condemnation  of  the  heathen.  No  minister 
would  dare  present  such  things  to  his  hearers.  This  is 
not  due  to  a  change  of  convictions  resulting  from  argu- 
ment; it  is  due  to  a  change  in  feeling.  We  have  seen 
elsewhere  that  as  tribes  become  more  cultivated  and 
more  humane  toward  each  other  their  religious  concep- 
tions are  less  brutal.  The  humanity  of  to-day  seen  in 
thousands  of  the  hospitals,  libraries  and  charities  will 
not  tolerate  conceptions  which  were  brought  forth  in  an 
age  when  wars,  duels  and  tortures  were  in  keeping  with 
the  spirit  of  the  people. 

In  the  churches,  then,  the  spirit  of  the  age  has  brought 
about  a  great  deal  of  the  same  sort  of  thinking  and 
feeling.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  similarity  of  tastes 
which  appear  in  many  church  services  in  the  cities.  The 
music  strives  toward  the  same  end.  That  is,  towards 
a  high  class  of  music,  very  different  from  chanting  psalms 
or  shouting  rollicking  revival  hymns.  The  church  archi- 
tecture runs  along  similar  lines.  The  taste  of  to-day 
calls  for  bright,  cheerful  interiors.  The  dark,  funereal 


210  THE  SECTS 

woodwork  of  our  fathers  is  giving  place  to  a  lighter 
and  more  attractive  finish.  There  is  a  marked  increase 
in  the  use  of  the  ritual,  beautifying  and  enriching  the 
service.  What  a  shock  it  was  to  hear  a  choir  sing  the 
Lord's  Prayer!  That  may  be  heard  to-day  in  a  Metho- 
dist, Presbyterian  or  Unitarian  church.  More  conspicu- 
ous is  the  change  in  the  tone  of  the  sermon.  It  is  adapted 
to  the  age  by  being  practical  rather  than  doctrinal ;  when 
doctrines  are  treated  they  usually  have  an  ethical  bear- 
ing and  are  intended  to  appeal  to  practical  people.  One 
may  go  into  many  churches  of  different  denominations 
and  fail  to  discover  in  the  services  any  peculiar,  sectarian 
traits. 

Within  the  Church  itself  several  agencies  have 
appeared  which  work  toward  levelling  down  sect  differ- 
ences. One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  wide- 
spread interest  in  missions.  No  one  can  realize  the  con- 
ditions in  foreign  countries  where  our  missionaries 
struggle  to  impart  the  simple  rudiments  of  Christianity 
and  desire  to  hamper  their  efforts  by  injecting  sect  differ- 
ences. The  great  evil  of  the  divided  church  is  so  con- 
spicuous that,  rather  than  insist  upon  one's  own  type  of 
church,  any  Christian  would  prefer  that  another  denomi- 
nation should  occupy  a  field  and  advance  the  cause  of 
civilization.  Returning  missionaries  often  bring  with 
them  the  spirit  of  kindliness  and  fellowship  which  should 
bind  all  the  sects  together.  In  the  presence  of  a  great 
common  enemy  the  little  differences  of  sects  disappear. 
Perhaps  in  the  coming  years  the  reflex  influence  of 
the  mission  fields  will  do  more  for  the  Church  than  any- 
thing else. 

The  spread  of  the  Young  People's  Christian  En- 
deavour Societies  has  been  a  great  assistance  to  the 


LEVELLING  FORCES  211 

spread  of  church  unity.  When  thousands  of  young 
people  meet  in  their  great  national  meetings  and  share 
each  other's  Christian  aspirations  it  is  sheer  folly  to 
inject  anything  sectarian;  it  would  not  be  tolerated. 
These  young  people  do  not  ask  each  other,  "  What  de- 
nomination do  you  belong  to  ? "  but  rather,  "  What  is 
your  Society  doing?  Have  you  any  new  ideas  to  give 
us?"  It  is  very  easy  for  anyone  brought  up  in  such 
societies  to  pass  from  one  denomination  to  another.  The 
earnestness  of  these  young  Christians  is  doing  a  great 
deal  toward  breaking  down  the  barriers  between  the 
churches. 

The  Sunday-school  is  a  great  leveller.  Children  of 
very  different  types  of  mind  and  of  emotion, — of  very 
different  types  of  human  nature, — attend  the  same  Sun- 
day-schools. They  grow  up  and  grow  into  the  church 
whose  Sunday-school  they  have  been  attending.  Their 
natural  preferences  are  not  considered,  indeed  they  are 
hardly  felt.  A  youth  does  not  know  what  he  wishes  to 
do  or  to  be,  he  does  not  understand  himself.  When 
his  religious  life  awakens  he  is  very  apt  to  join  the 
church  with  which  his  parents  are  connected.  As  the 
majority  of  the  members  in  any  church  come  from  the 
Sunday-school  it  is  obvious  that  the  Sunday-school  is 
a  means  of  the  very  first  importance  in  bringing  people 
of  very  unlike  temperaments  into  the  same  church. 

The  exchange  of  church  letters  between  different  de- 
nominations helps  to  break  down  artificial  barriers,  but  it 
is  not  a  practice  which  makes  entirely  for  uniformity. 
In  such  a  country  as  ours  where  the  population  is  con- 
stantly growing  and  shifting,  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
changing  from  one  church  to  another.  Often  a  member 
will  take  his  church  letter  and  join  some  church  which 


212  THE  SECTS 

appeals  to  his  type  of  religious  nature.     This  tends  to 
strengthen  church  types. 

A  better  spirit  among  clergymen  is  helping  to  bring 
a  uniformity  into  the  churches.  Ministers'  meetings 
where  men  of  different  creeds  meet  and  exchange  ideas, 
help  to  broaden  their  sympathies  and  bring  the  churches 
closer  together.  The  habits  of  exchanging  pulpits,  of 
uniting  services  during  the  summer,  of  cooperating  in 
civic  work,  all  make  for  a  better  feeling  and  a  closer 
sympathy  between  the  churches. 

Where  there  is  cooperation  between  the  official  boards 
of  different  denominations,  as,  for  example,  in  some 
Home  Mission  Boards,  there  is  the  best  sign  of  a  genuine 
move  toward  church  federation.  It  is  a  great  pity  that  no 
widespread  national  cooperation  between  the  boards  of 
the  different  denominations  has  yet  been  started. 

As  a  whole,  the  gravitation  toward  unity  of  Christian 
life  and  thought  makes  itself  felt  more  in  the  ranks  of 
the  Church  than  among  the  officers.  In  the  laymen  is 
the  great  hope.  It  is  natural  that  pastors  and  secretaries 
of  boards  should  give  their  efforts  to  the  work  immedi- 
ately in  hand  and  should  lose  sight  of  the  greater  work 
of  Christianity  as  a  whole.  Denominational  leaders  are 
very  slow  to  see  the  need  of  their  going  out  of  office 
in  order  to  give  place  to  great  leaders  representative  of 
all  Christianity.  It  is  very  difficult  for  a  secretary  in 
some  one  sect  to  see  the  necessity  of  his  office  going  out 
of  existence  in  order  to  merge  his  work  into  the  work 
of  Christianity  as  a  whole.  Undoubtedly,  many  men  are 
Christians  in  heart  who  cling  to  their  means  of  a  liveli- 
hood at  the  expense  of  progress  towards  church  unity. 
Unfortunately,  the  great  leaders  in  the  Church  are  not 
leading  toward  unity.  Occasionally  we  hear  pronounce- 


LEVELLING  FORCES  213 

ments  to  the  effect,  "  Our  denomination  stands  for  unity, 
we  have  always  been  desirous  of  church  unity;  we  open 
our  arms  to  receive  all  into  our  fold."  This  sounds 
hypocritical  to  a  plain  man.  It  is  all  "  come  to  us." 
There  is  not  even  a  frank  willingness  to  compromise  dif- 
ferences. These  evasions  give  the  colour  of  Christian 
breadth  and  charity,  but  they  are  more  misleading  than 
positive  opposition.  At  heart  many  church  leaders  abhor 
union.  Among  those  of  their  own  profession,  they  ac- 
knowledge their  prejudices  and  defend  them  by  urging 
the  peculiar  worth  of  their  variety  of  Christianity.  This 
would  be  well  enough  if  they  acknowledged  that  the 
peculiar  worth  of  their  variety  lay  in  the  fact  that  there 
are  temperamental  differences  in  religious  natures  and 
their  church  answers  certain  natural  needs.  This  would 
be  honest  and  would  open  the  way  to  cooperation,  for  it 
would  acknowledge  that  church  differences  are  based 
on  human  differences,  and  would  escape  the  old  super- 
stition that  each  sect  is  peculiarly  the  child  of  God. 
Not  the  least  obstacle  is  a  fear  of  something  like 
church  socialism.  Great  buildings,  valuable  sites, 
wealthy  churches,  large  and  successful  publication 
houses  and  a  number  of  other  interests,  it  is  feared  would 
all  have  to  go  into  a  great  melting  pot,  out  of  which 
fusion  should  come  the  future  church.  It  is,  however, 
a  mere  bogey.  No  such  movement  is  necessary,  or  prob- 
able. The  trend  toward  church  unity  will  work  out  a 
much  simpler  and  more  effective  method  of  cooperation. 
Nevertheless,  the  force  of  public  opinion  is  undoubtedly 
the  force  which  must  bring  about  the  cooperation  be- 
tween Sects  and  whatever  of  unity  shall  be  achieved. 
Something  of  this  sort  is  actually  being  accomplished. 
Social  pressure  is  bringing  the  churches  closer  together. 


214  THE  SECTS 

Indeed,  this  is  where  each  individual  should  put  forth 
his  efforts.  Let  each  one  seek  to  spread  the  conviction 
that  the  sects  are  an  evil  and  menace  the  life  of  the 
Church,  that  cooperation,  and  not  competition,  must  be 
the  active  spirit  in  Christianity.  Then  the  soil  is  pre- 
pared for  the  spread  of  the  great  movement,  when  at 
length  it  shall  get  under  way.  Public  opinion  may  be 
cultivated  and  prepared  to  receive  certain  conceptions 
just  as  the  soil  may  be  prepared  to  receive  certain  plants. 
Every  sociologist  knows  that  the  spread  of  different 
fashions  as  well  as  different  beliefs  depends  upon  the 
social  soil. 

In  studying  the  principles  which  seem  to  govern  the 
spread  of  the  Church  in  society  some  very  interesting 
things  come  to  light.  One  of  these  is  the  curious 
fact  that  the  kind  of  public  opinion  which  permits  the 
spread  of  divorce  is  the  kind  of  public  opinion  which 
also  fosters  Christian  Science.  Now,  Christian  Science 
does  not  cause  divorce  necessarily,  and  certainly  divorce 
does  not  cause  Christian  Science.  They  are  no  more 
related  than  the  pine  and  the  scrub  oak,  but  both  pine 
and  scrub  oak  flourish  in  the  same  soil.  In  comparing 
the  spread  of  the  social  custom  and  a  religious  faith  it 
is  impossible  to  make  comparisons  of  large  sections  of 
the  country.  Thus  a  state  may  have  many  Christian 
Science  followers  in  the  Protestant  population  and  also 
have  such  a  large  number  of  Roman  Catholics  that  its 
divorce  rates  will  be  very  small;  on  the  other  hand,  a 
state  may  have  a  high  divorce  rate  but  if  it  has  very 
few  cities  it  will  have  comparatively  few  Christian  Sci- 
ence churches.  The  only  safe  comparison  is  between 
cities,  and  even  here  the  figures  are  for  the  city  and  the 
county  in  which  the  city  is  situated,  for  divorce  rates; 


LEVELLING  FORCES 


215 


while  fcr  Christian  Science  membership  the  figures  are 
for  the  cities  only.  However,  the  city  usually  has  such  a 
large  proportion  of  the  population  of  its  county  that  the 
remainder  living  only  in  the  county  is  negligible.  The 
following  eighteen  cities  have  been  selected  because  they 
had  a  number  of  Christian  Science  churches  in  them  and 
are  representative  of  different  portions  of  the  country. 
New  York,  which  occupies  several  counties,  itself,  is 
left  out;  and  Boston,  which  is  the  centre  of  Christian 
Science,  is  also  left  out. 


18  Cities  arranged  in  order  of 
largest  number  ^  of  Christian 
Science  per  100,000  population 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Minneapolis 

Denver 

Indianapolis 

Portland 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

Cleveland 

Chicago 

Toledo 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Buffalo 

Detroit 

Milwaukee 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Cincinnati 

Richmond 

Baltimore 

Philadelphia 


18  Cities  arranged  in  order 
of  the  largest  numbers  of 
divorces.  100,000  in  county 
containing  city 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Indianapolis 
Denver 
St.  Joseph 
Minneapolis 
(Chicago)  same  rate 
(Toledo)  for  both 
Portland 

(Cleveland)  same  rate 
/  (Detroit)  for  both 
St.  Louis 
Milwaukee 
Cincinnati 


Baltimore 
Philadelphia 
Buffalo 
Richmond 


In  the  first  six  cities  in  each  column  five  are  the  same 
and  in  the  last  six  cities  of  each  column  four  are  the 
same ;  so  at  the  head  and  at  the  foot  of  each  list  we  find 
the  same  cities.  If  these  results  are  studied  carefully  it 


216  THE  SECTS 

will  be  found  that  they  can  hardly  be  due  to  chance.* 
Here  then  is  an  instance  where  public  opinion,  the  social 
conscience,  makes  possible  or  impossible  the  diffusion 
of  a  given  practice  or  faith. 

If  the  educated  Christians  of  this  nation  began  to 
address  themselves  to  the  great  necessity  of  union  among 
the  denominations  the  sentiment  would  spread  first  in 
the  cities.  City  churches  of  great  strength  and  noble 
reputation  would  become  centres  of  the  new  movement; 
just  as  the  great  cities  in  ancient  times  became  the  rally- 
ing points  in  the  growth  of  Christianity.  The  move- 
ment would  spread  easily  in  some  sections  of  the  coun- 
try and  slowly  in  other  sections.  Its  spread  would  de- 
pend upon  the  enlightenment  and  earnestness  of  the 
laymen. 

*C.  C.  Spearman:  "  Footrule  for  Measuring  Correlation,"  Brit. 
Jour,  of  Psychol.,  2,  pp.  89-108. 


XIV 

POSSIBILITIES  AND  IMPOSSIBILITIES  IN 
CHURCH  UNION 

A /"AST  church  of  thirty  million  members  has  in- 
finite possibilities.  Nothing  could  stand  the 
impact  of  its  attack.  The  momentum  of  such 
an  immense  army  would  carry  everything  before  it. 
In  a  decade  deep-seated  abuses  would  be  swept  out  of 
the  nation,  in  two  generations  there  would  not  be  a 
town  or  tribe  the  world  around  which  would  not  live 
under  the  shadow  of  the  cross.  The  present  horde  of 
sects  marching  in  every  direction  with  no  concerted  ef- 
forts would  become  an  irresistible  army,  with  a  con- 
tinuous firing  line,  with  every  camp  in  order  and  definite 
plan  of  campaign.  Each  individual  church  would  have 
a  place  to  fill,  a  work  to  do,  and  it  would  feel  that  its 
efforts  were  counting.  This  union  of  forces  would  keep 
the  singleness  of  purpose  throughout  Christendom  in 
prominence.  Petty  dissensions  would  dissolve  and  dis- 
appear in  the  heat  of  great  achievements.  The  spirit  of 
Christ  would  rest  as  sunlight  upon  all  human  lives. 
Surely,  the  inspiration  of  such  a  conception  should  fire 
men  with  a  zeal  for  its  realization. 

Already  there  are  movements  toward  church  union; 
the  term  "  Church  Unity  "  is  becoming  familiar.  There 
is  considerable  vagueness  in  the  use  of  the  term.  Church 
union  may  mean  a  unity  which  imposes  the  same  gov- 

217 


218  THE  SECTS 

ernment,  doctrines,  worship  and  practical  activities  upon 
all  the  constituent  churches.  It  may  mean,  also,  the 
voluntary  association  of  different  sects  for  certain  pur- 
poses, such  as  civic  work,  or  mission  work,  or  the 
founding  of  educational  institutions.  This  latter  is 
rather  a  federation  of  churches  than  a  union. 

Unity  is  possible  to  many  denominations,  federation 
is  possible  to  all.  If  churches  of  widely  unlike  tempera- 
ments unite  they  are  practically  sure  to  separate  eventu- 
ally. Such  a  calamity  would  set  back  the  sentiment  of 
church  unity  a  whole  generation.  To  try  to  merge  peo- 
ple whose  church  life  is  full  of  feeling  with  those  cooler 
tempered  doctrinaires  would  be  to  invite  dissension. 
When  the  life  of  a  church  is  seen,  in  the  light  of  its 
past  history  and  its  present  interests  and  practices,  to 
have  a  certain  definite  tendency,  it  is  obviously  absurd 
to  try  to  direct  this  tendency  in  a  direction  not  congenial 
to  it.  At  the  present  time  there  is  no  little  danger  that 
several  denominations  moved  by  very  proper  impulses 
may  form  a  union.  Overtures  for  such  a  union  are  al- 
ready under  way.  The  past  of  these  sects  has  been 
quite  different  and  the  levelling  influences  at  work  upon 
them  have  not  yet  reduced  them  to  a  sufficient  homo- 
geneity. They  could  reshape  their  creeds  and  refashion 
their  polities,  but  it  is  hardly  possible  that  they  would 
reshape  their  religious  temperaments.  Before  a  thor- 
oughgoing unity  is  attempted  the  first  step  should  be  a 
federation.  This  would  enable  the  work  of  each  church 
to  proceed  without  hindrance  and  at  the  same  time  would 
avoid  unnecessary  friction.  As  the  churches  understood 
each  other  better,  as  their  pulpits  would  call  the  ministers 
of  other  sects  in  the  federation,  and  as  members  would 
pass  easily  from  one  sect  to  another  the  temperamental 


CHURCH  UNION  219 

differences  would  either  become  understood  and  allow- 
ance made  for  them,  or  they  would  gradually  disappear; 
in  the  latter  case  genuine  church  unity  is  possible.  A 
federation  of  some  sort  is  possible  among  practically  all 
of  the  sects.  It  should  start  with  a  frank  recognition  of 
differences.  An  honest  consideration  of  the  differences 
in  mode  of  worship  and  life  would  quickly  make  clear 
that  the  issues  between  the  churches  do  not  go  back  to 
God  but  to  human  nature.  As  soon  as  men  realize  that 
their  church  has  succeeded  in  a  peculiar  way,  not  be- 
cause God  has  peculiarly  favoured  it  and  ignored  others, 
but  because  it  has  met  the  particular  needs  of  certain 
types  of  men,  the  attitude  toward  other  churches  will  be 
vastly  improved.  We  need  to  recognize  that  the  very 
first  disciples  were  not  men  of  one  type  and  that  Christ 
never  tried  to  make  John  like  Peter,  though  He  loved 
them  both. 

More  specifically,  what  is  the  present  situation  ?  What 
can  be  done  at  the  present  time  to  further  the  unity  of 
the  churches?  Obviously  some  things  are  practical  and 
easily  possible  while  other  things  are  entirely  out  of  the 
question. 

Perhaps  the  first  and  easiest  achievement  would  be  the 
reunion  of  those  sects  within  sects  mentioned  in  an 
earlier  chapter.  The  old  issue  of  slavery  is  long  since 
dead  and  there  is  no  justification  for  Northern  and 
Southern  branches  in  the  same  denomination.  If  the 
Baptist,  Methodist  and  Presbyterian  churches  would  heal 
these  old  schisms,  it  would  be  a  splendid  step  toward 
bringing  all  the  denominations  together.  When  the 
Southern  States  seceded,  one  set  the  example  and  the 
others  followed  in  quick  imitation.  Imitation  is  a  social 
force  of  great  power.  Could  these  great  denomina- 


220  THE  SECTS 

tions  show  the  world  how  differences  may  be  forgotten, 
how  problems  of  administration  may  be  solved,  and  how 
unity  can  be  achieved,  their  success  would  inspire  many 
other  similar  efforts.  As  matters  stand  now  the  old  issue 
lives  on  to  the  detriment  of  the  whole  Christian  Church. 

The  possibility  of  bringing  sects  together  which  dif- 
fer because  of  national  heritage  is  much  more  difficult. 
These  national  churches  carry  with  them  the  impetus  of 
past  traditions.  Especially  is  this  so  in  the  churches  in 
smaller  communities  and  in  the  country.  Time  will  wear 
down  these  differences  and  make  church  unity  possible. 
But  in  the  meantime  the  strategic  years  for  spreading 
Christianity  in  foreign  lands  are  slipping  past.  It  would 
certainly  be  practicable  for  the  larger  churches  in  the 
great  cities  to  start  a  movement  toward  federation  and 
to  seek  true  federation,  to  infuse  a  spirit  of  unity 
throughout  their  own  sects.  A  number  of  intelligent  and 
capable  laymen  in  each  sect  could  spread  a  sentiment 
which  would  make  the  future  union  of  churches  easier. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  change  doctrines  and  worship,  but 
only  the  spirit  of  distrust.  That  must  be  changed.  It 
should  not  be  hard  to  work  for  the  spread  of  Christianity 
independent  of  sect  interests.  Only  a  few  men  would 
resist  such  a  church  movement;  for  the  average  man  is 
willing  to  believe  in  the  genuineness  of  his  neighbour's 
religion  whether  he  be  of  the  same  national  stock  or  not. 

Racial  differences  are  much  harder  to  manage.  Frank- 
ness and  fair  dealing  will  accomplish  a  great  deal  toward 
overcoming  friction  between  different  races  in  the  Chris- 
tian church.  As  Christianity  spreads  over  the  world 
different  races  must  come  together.  What  shall  be  the 
relation  of  one  to  the  other  ?  There  is  no  place  for  race 
hatred  in  Christianity.  Every  genuine  Christian  is  will- 


CHURCH  UNION  221 

ing  to  cooperate  with  his  brother  in  spreading  civiliza- 
tion. There  is  no  need  for  attempting  to  bring  race 
tastes  together.  Where  the  races  naturally  gravitate  to- 
gether there  is  no  problem,  but  where  they  gravitate  to- 
ward different  centres  it  is  possible  only  to  have  a  fed- 
eration and  not  a  union. 

Such  differences  as  those  that  appear  between  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  churches  depend  in 
no  small  measure  upon  differences  of  religious  type. 
Often  it  is  not  a  question  of  types,  but  of  doctrine  and 
worship  so  unlike  that  the  very  purpose  of  the  church 
is  distinct.  If  Protestantism  means  imitating  Christ  in 
character  and  conduct,  simply  using  the  Church  as  a 
means  to  accomplish  this  end,  if  Catholicism  means  the 
identification  of  an  individual  with  an  organization  and 
the  acceptance  of  its  particular  sacraments,  then  the  pur- 
pose of  these  two  great  bodies  is  the  same  only  in  ethical 
issues.  In  these  they  may  act  together ;  but  in  the 
spread' of  their  beliefs  there  is,  at  present,  little  hope 
for  federation.  However,  with  the  increase  of  educa- 
tion even  these  barriers  may  be  lowered  so  that  some 
sort  of  cooperation  may  be  possible. 

The  doctrinal  differences  which  characterize  a  number 
of  sects  in  the  Protestant  Church  are  not  so  dangerous 
as  is  often  imagined.  Creeds  to-day  are  not  the  serious 
hindrance  to  unity  that  they  were  in  the  past.  If  the 
laymen  of  the  Protestant  churches  were  to  write  their 
beliefs  down  in  black  and  white  it  would  soon  be  seen 
that  there  are  not  sufficiently  great  differences  to  warrant 
different  sects.  It  is  the  work  of  the  specialist,  the  doc- 
trinaire, which  does  the  harm.  Men  who  know  no  more 
about  doctrinal  matters  than  did  the  immediate  follow- 
ers of  Christ  can  easily  get  together  and  work  together. 


222  THE  SECTS 

With  the  sameness  of  viewpoint  which  characterizes 
educated  men  to-day,  and  with  the  desire  for  practical 
achievement  which  characterizes  Americans,  a  platform 
of  doctrinal  unity  could  readily  be  drawn  up  by  capable 
and  devout  laymen. 

Church  polity  is  not  an  insuperable  barrier.  Though 
it  makes  unity  difficult  it  does  not  render  federation  im- 
possible. As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  century's  experience  in 
different  church  polities  has  shown  that  each  has  its  value 
and  each  has  its  defects.  Probably  no  church  is  unwill- 
ing to  make  certain  modifications  for  the  better  in  its 
polity.  Certainly  few  laymen  would  insist  on  their 
churches'  polity  at  the  expense  of  Christianity.  Resist- 
ance to  changes  in  polity  comes  largely  from  the  office- 
holders, and  this  resistance  would  soon  disappear  in  the 
presence  of  an  earnest,  determined  movement  for  unity. 

The  great  problem,  indeed  the  greatest  problem  of  all, 
is  how  to  bring  different  natural  types  of  religious  ex- 
perience together.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  mix 
people  who  are  naturally  incompatible.  Though  dif- 
ferences which  stand  out  rather  conspicuously  in  church 
government,  doctrines  and  practices  may  be  ignored,  the 
subtle  differences  of  temperament  and  disposition  which 
are  often  much  less  conspicuous  cannot  be  ignored. 
From  the  study  in  the  preceding  chapters  it  is  possible  to 
map  out  very  roughly  what  religious  bodies  might  be  ex- 
pected to  enter  into  more  intimate  relations  with  each 
other. 

If  the  reader  will  turn  back  to  page  201  and  study  the 
natural  groups  of  the  sects,  it  will  be  seen  that,  so  far 
as  the  nature  of  the  religious  life  is  concerned,  the  parti- 
tions which  have  been  thrown  up  around  the  various 
sects  can  easily  be  broken  down,  and  from  the  remains 


CHURCH  UNION  223 

a  few  large  denominational  walls  may  be  erected.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  any  high  sectarian  walls  should  be 
raised,  but  it  is  very  natural ;  and  if  they  are  to  be  erected 
at  all,  let  them  be  erected  along  lines  of  natural  differ- 
ences. Such  natural  differences  show  very  clear  as  one 
reads  across  the  table. 

The  first  thing  which  catches  the  attention  in  a  study 
of  this  table  is  that  the  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
Christian  churches  in  America  are  found  in  those  types 
which  range  from  the  emotional  through  the  dogmatic 
into  the  intellectual.  Here  we  probably  have  an  Ameri- 
can type.  From  this  great  central  type  others  reach  out 
in  two  directions,  one  towards  a  conversional  type,  which 
merges  into  that  peculiar  nature  which  is  so  susceptible 
to  suggestion,  that  in  turn  fades  into  the  impulsive  and 
imitative  type;  in  the  other  direction  this  central  type 
leads  off  into  altruistic  and  intellectual  types. 

The  problem  of  assorting  these  various  religious  bodies 
is  not  a  simple  one.  Of  course  they  are  all  related,  but 
the  question  of  their  similarities  and  dissimilarities  is 
an  exceedingly  difficult  one.  Indeed,  they  overlap  in  so 
many  places  that  the  selection  of  a  group  for  some  one 
set  can  be  made  with  no  great  certainty.  However,  if 
one  begins  to  study  the  table  in  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  and  slowly  reads  across  through  the  groupings 
of  the  sects  down  to  the  lower  right-hand  corner,  a 
conviction  will  certainly  arise  maintaining  the  obvious 
unity  of  large  groups  of  these  sects.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  falls  very  largely  in  that  class  which  may  be 
instinctive  and  imitative,  though  its  membership  spreads 
through  nearly  all  of  the  types.  The  Catholic  Church  in 
this  country  is  undergoing  many  changes,  the  levelling 
influences  have  not  succeeded  in  bringing  this  sect  suffi- 


224  THE  SECTS 

ciently  into  the  spirit  of  modern  times,  as  yet,  for  it  to 
become  soluble  in  any  large  merger  of  the  denomina- 
tions; this  church,  therefore,  must  stand  in  a  group  by 
itself. 

The  coloured  churches  with  a  preponderance  of  the 
emotional  and  convertible  types  have  also  their  insoluble 
features  which  have  been  discussed.  They  may  well  con- 
stitute another  group. 

The  next  sect  is  that  which  has  been  so  much  dis- 
cussed, the  Christian  Science.  Probably  this  sect  will  be 
absorbed  into  the  others  in  time ;  for  the  great  source  of 
strength  which  the  other  sects  possess  is  denied  to  it; 
that  is,  the  Sunday-school,  which  builds  up  a  normal, 
healthy  religious  life  and  supplies  recruits  to  the  church, 
has  no  proper  function  in  Christian  Science.  The  mem- 
bership is  largely  composed  of  those  who  have  been 
members  of  other  churches  and  have  been  drawn  to 
Mrs.  Eddy's  doctrines  after  they  had  already  become 
Christians.  When  the  lesson  of  the  Christian  Science 
Church  has  been  learned  by  the  others,  it  will  no  longer 
have  any  raison  d'etre. 

The  next  two  sects  whose  types  run  well  into  the 
suggestible  and  convertible  are  the  Methodists  and  Evan- 
gelical Association.  The  emphasis  of  these  sects  is  upon 
spiritual  experience,  the  faith  and  the  life  they  develop 
should  bring  these  two  sects  together.  The  Methodist 
includes  more  types  than  does  the  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion. Many  people  in  the  Baptist  churches  could  be 
equally  comfortable  in  the  Methodist,  though  the  limits 
of  these  two  sects  among  the  different  types  do  not 
coincide. 

Inasmuch  as  the  Baptist  denomination  includes  men  of 
the  dogmatic  and  intellectual  types  it  might  be  advisable 


CHURCH  UNION  225 

to  group  another  lot  of  denominations  with  the  Baptists ; 
that  is,  denominations  which  are  composed  of  about  the 
same  types  as  those  entering  into  the  Baptist  churches. 
Among  these  types  are  the  Adventists,  the  Christian 
Connection,  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  the  Churches  of 
Christ,  the  Dunkards,  the  Conservative  Friends  and  the 
United  Brethren.  All  of  these  sects  have  a  large  ma- 
jority in  their  memberships  which  are  of  very  much 
the  same  religious  nature.  There  is  more  diversity  of 
type  in  the  Baptist  churches  than  there  is  between  the 
average  Baptist  and  the  average  member  of  the  other 
denominations  in  this  group. 

Another  large  group  might  well  be  headed  by  the 
Presbyterian  churches.  Here,  too,  there  are  a  number 
of  different  types  ranging  from  the  dogmatic  in  which 
intellect  and  emotion  are  interlocked,  through  the  al- 
truistic to  the  dominantly  intellectual.  In  this  spread  of 
types  the  Lutherans  may  easily  find  a  place,  though  a 
minority  of  the  Lutherans  certainly  runs  out  into  the 
emotional  types.  Their  adherence  to  their  theoretical 
tenets  proclaims  their  kinship  to  the  Presbyterians.  The 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  is  composed  of  many  peo- 
ple of  exactly  the  same  type  as  those  in  the  Congrega- 
tional and  Presbyterian  sects.  President  Charles  Cuth- 
bert  Hall  once  declared  that  he  had  been  amazed  to  find 
so  many  people  who  had  been  Presbyterians  now  in  the 
Episcopal  fold.  In  the  Congregationalist  we  have  a  type 
very  close  to  the  more  liberal  wing  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  Ministers  and  members  of  Congregational 
churches  pass  into  the  Presbyterian  churches  very  often 
and  very  easily. 

Truly  this  gathering  of  Congregationalists,  Episco- 
palians, Lutherans  and,  let  us  dare  to  add,  Latter-day 


226  THE  SECTS 

Saints,  looks  like  a  combination  which  would  result  in 
an  explosion  rather  than  in  a  cement.  That,  however, 
is  a  superficial  estimate  of  this  group.  Beneath  the  dif- 
ferences in  ecclesiastical  vestments  are  members  of  the 
same  family.  What  deceives  the  eye  is  the  outward 
appearance,  and  truly  the  outward  appearances  of  these 
sects  are  very  dissimilar !  But  within  we  find  people  of  the 
same  great  types;  people  of  the  same  tastes  and  abilities 
in  other  courses  of  life.  Great  partitions  are  those  be- 
tween these  sects,  but  they  are  not  formidable;  once 
down,  the  sects  themselves  would  find  the  majority  of 
their  members  very  congenial  fellow-worshippers.  This 
applies,  of  course,  to  the  native  Americans  in  the  Lu- 
theran churches.  As  for  the  Latter-day  Saints  their 
tenets  will  probably  exclude  them  from  uniting  with  any 
other  denominations  for  some  time  to  come;  neverthe- 
less, the  average  man  in  that  sect  is  not  unlike  the  aver- 
age member  of  a  Western  Congregational,  Presbyterian 
or  Lutheran  Church.  Some  of  the  members  of  the 
Friends  and  the  Dunkers  might  well  go  into  this  group, 
while  the  less  progressive  wings  of  those  two  sects  might 
find  a  more  comfortable  home  in  that  group  which  the 
Baptist  denomination  heads. 

The  Unitarian  and  the  Universalist  churches  are  so 
evidently  similar  and  so  thoroughly  of  the  intellectual 
type  that  they  might  easily  unite  into  one  body.  This 
would  be  a  very  becoming  and  proper  performance,  as 
both  of  these  sects  have  been  leaders  in  many  matters. 
Why  should  they  not  lead  in  practical  church  unity? 

Though  these  groups  have  in  them  sects  which  from  a 
theoretical  point  of  view  are  not  even  first  cousins  and 
whose  polities  are  not  to  be  found  on  the  same  family 
tree,  nevertheless  the  people  who  make  up  the  sects  are 


CHURCH  UNION  227 

of  one  parentage.  It  is  the  nearness  of  type  rather  than 
doctrine  which  establishes  a  unity  that  can  endure.  We 
have  seen  many  instances  of  the  same  doctrine  and  the 
same  polity  spreading  up  into  factions.  Unity  is  not 
to  be  found  in  any  artificial  similarity. 

These  bodies,  the  Catholic  as  one  great  division,  the 
Afro-American  churches  as  another,  the  Methodist  and 
Evangelical  Association  as  a  third,  the  Baptist  and  their 
affiliated  bodies  as  a  fourth,  the  Presbyterian  and  its 
affiliated  bodies  as  a  fifth,  and  the  Unitarian  and  the 
Universalist  constituting  the  sixth,  would  have  within 
their  walls  over  thirty-one  million  members.    Such  a  vast 
church,  or  rather  such  vast  churches,  could  sway  the 
world.    I  said  at  first  such  a  church,  for  I  am  convinced 
that  these  great  groups,  formed  because  of  their  natural 
similarities  of  spiritual  nature,  would  not  act  as  inde- 
pendent churches  but  as  branches  of  one  vast  church. 
When  men   can   bring  themselves   to  believe  that  the 
church  to  which  they  belong  owes  its  existence  as  a 
separate  sect  not  to  any  act  of  God,  but  to  a  natural 
preference  of  men,  then  the  attitude  of  distrust  and  sus- 
picion disappears.    Sympathy  and  fellowship  appear.    No 
artilleryman  would  claim  that  the  artillery  defends  the 
country  more  efficiently  than  the  battleship.    No  cavalry- 
man claims  his  superiority  to  the  marine  in  the  defense 
of  his  country  or  in  its  esteem.     All  these  are  branches 
of  one  great  common  cause.    Each  man  serves  his  coun- 
try where  his  talent  and  ability  best  fit;  it  is  talent  and 
ability  which  determine  his  place, — human  preference, 
not  divine.     So  in  the  army  of  God,  let  the  human  dis- 
positions be  frankly  recognized  and  every  member  of 
the  Christian   church  will   see  the  whole  body  of  his 
fellow- worshippers  in  their  true  perspective;  there  will 


228  THE  SECTS 

be  no  "chosen  of  God,"  for  all  will  be  equally  chosen 
of  God.  It  is  impossible  to  hope  that  this  frame  of 
mind  will  become  common  in  the  very  near  future,  it  is 
something  which  education  alone  can  bring  about.  Once 
it  is  achieved  church  unity  will  be  accomplished  easily. 

Could  a  series  of  great  sects  be  formed,  based  on  their 
natural  similarities,  many  of  the  obstacles  to  the  progress 
of  Christianity  would  disappear.  Among  them  would 
go  that  oft-heard  criticism,  "What  is  Christianity? 
What  church  is  really  the  Christian  church?"  The 
spirit  of  competition  which  is  the  curse  of  the  churches 
in  so  many  small  towns  and  villages,  would  necessarily 
fade  away  and  the  attitude  of  suspicion,  almost  of  hos- 
tility, would  give  place  to  a  far  better  spirit.  These 
advantages  are  nothing  like  so  great  as  the  tremendous 
advantage  of  administering  the  wealth  and  strength  of 
Christianity  in  such  a  way  that  Christ's  cause  is  ad- 
vanced and  not  impeded.  In  the  present  age  the  advan- 
tage which  looms  largest  lies  in  the  mission  fields.  Here 
some  sort  of  unity  is  simply  indispensable. 

In  the  Report  of  Commission  VIII  on  Cooperation  and 
Promotion  of  Unity  for  the  World's  Missionary  Confer- 
ence,  1910,  the  demand  for  unity  cannot  fail  to  impress 
even  the  most  casual  observer  of  church  affairs.  The  Re- 
port shows  that  in  China,  Japan,  India  and  Africa  many 
conferences  have  been  held  among  representatives  of  dif- 
ferent sects.  These  conferences  were  the  outgrowth  of 
general  needs.  They  often  covered  large  sections  of  the 
mission  fields.  So  great  is  the  difference  between  Chris- 
tianity and  the  heathen  people  that  the  microscopic  dif- 
ferences between  Christians  disappear  for  everyone  but 
the  most  near-sighted  and  narrow-minded  sectarian. 
"  For  the  accomplishment  of  this  overwhelming  task  it 


CHURCH  UNION  229 

seems  essential  that  the  Christian  church  should  present 
a  united  front.  Its  divisions  are  a  source  of  weakness 
and  impair  the  effectiveness  of  its  testimony  to  the  one 
gospel  of  the  Son  of  God  which  it  professes.  The  issues 
are  so  great  that  there  can  be  no  trifling  in  the  matter. 
The  evangelizing  of  nations,  the  Christianizing  of  em- 
pires and  kingdoms,  is  the  object  before  us.  The  work 
has  to  be  done  now.  It  is  urgent  and  must  be  pressed 
forward  at  once.  The  enterprise  calls  for  the  highest 
qualities  of  statesmanship  and  for  the  maximum  efficiency 
in  all  departments  of  work.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
those  who  are  in  the  front  of  this  great  conflict  and  on 
whose  minds  and  souls  the  gravity  of  the  issues  presses 
most  immediately,  should  be  the  first  to  recognize  the  need 
for  concerted  action  and  closer  fellowship"  (p.  131). 
What  a  shame  it  is  that  the  work  of  Christ  should  be 
impaired  by  those  who  are  endeavouring  to  further  it 
because  of  artificial  differences  in  church  polity  and  in 
historical  creeds.  "  It  is  evident  that  so  long  as  mission- 
aries are  sent  out  and  controlled  by  missionary  societies 
in  Western  lands,  and  the  churches  planted  by  them  main- 
tain connection  with  these  home  societies,  movements  to- 
ward unity  in  the  mission  field  cannot  proceed  far  with- 
out the  cooperation  and  support  of  those  responsible  for 
missionary  administration  at  home.  Several  of  our  cor- 
respondents state  quite  emphatically  that  the  chief  diffi- 
culty in  the  way  of  effective  cooperation  has  been  the  lack 
of  support  on  the  part  of  societies  at  home.  Further,  it 
is  obvious  that  since  the  missionaries  working  in  any  par- 
ticular area  of  the  mission  field  often  belong  to  different 
nationalities,  cooperation  at  the  home  base  to  be  effective 
in  all  cases  must  be  not  only  of  an  interdenominational 
but  also  of  an  international  character"  (p.  119). 


230  THE  SECTS 

Some  definite  steps  could  be  taken  at  once  in  the  direc- 
tion of  church  cooperation  in  foreign  lands.  If  the 
groups  of  churches  mentioned  above  could  decide  that 
they  would  act  together  in  the  spreading  of  the  gospel,  it 
would  be  altogether  practicable  to  plan  their  missionary 
combination  and  direct  the  advance  of  Christianity  with 
great  efficiency.  One  very  practical  movement  might  be 
set  afoot  at  once.  There  is  no  great  centre  for  all  mission 
activity.  Such  a  centre  could  well  be  established,  every 
denomination  cooperating.  Our  missionaries  go  into 
foreign  lands  not  knowing  the  language  they  are  to  use, 
often  not  understanding  the  people  they  are  to  meet, 
frequently  having  no  idea  of  what  sort  of  preparation  is 
necessary.  It  requires  years  for  them  to  overcome  these 
handicaps.  An  institution  should  be  endowed  which 
would  enable  those  determining  to  give  their  lives  to 
missions  to  spend  several  years  in  direct  preparation  for 
a  certain  work  in  a  certain  field.  This  institution  should 
be  the  centre  of  missionary  interests  for  every  denomi- 
nation. With  it,  every  mission  board  should  cooperate; 
and  every  theological  seminary  should  be  in  close  touch 
with  it.  Here,  missionaries  who  have  laboured  for  years 
could  bring  the  treasures  of  their,  experiences.  Years  of 
mistaken  effort  would  be  avoided  by  a  few  years'  work- 
ing in  such  an  institution.  In  the  place  of  the  regular 
theological  course  given  to  those  who  intend  to  be  pas- 
tors in  our  own  country  there  would  be  courses  in 
preparation  for  active  work  in  mission  fields.  It  would 
be  possible  for  the  mission  Boards  to  determine,  if  they 
acted  in  cooperation,  into  what  fields  they  would  send 
new  missionaries.  This  would  enable  anyone  determin- 
ing to  devote  his  life  to  missionary  work  to  prepare  for 
work  in  some  particular  line.  Its  language  could  be 


CHURCH  UNION  231 

acquired,  the  traits  of  its  people  could  be  studied,  the 
needs  of  the  country  could  be  learned.  The  man  who 
went  into  a  field  knowing  what  was  needed  would  un- 
doubtedly have  some  practical  knowledge  at  his  dis- 
posal based  on  the  needs  of  the  people,  for  different 
countries  are  appealed  to  in  different  ways.  He  would 
know  something  about  agriculture  and  agricultural  im- 
plements and  would  be  in  a  position  to  carry  some  of  the 
modern  advantages  of  our  civilization;  he  would  carry 
with  him  a  knowledge  of  some  of  the  sciences  which 
are  indispensable  to  our  age.  In  short,  instead  of  filling 
his  hours  of  preparation  with  useless  information  about 
creeds  and  dogmas  and  church  history  and  dead  lan- 
guages, he  would  fill  his  time  with  a  preparation  which 
would  apply  directly  to  his  work. 

From  such  a  centre  as  this,  to  which  all  Christian 
churches  contributed,  would  flow  in  return  an  inspira- 
tion for  Christian  fellowship  and  Christian  service  which 
cannot  be  measured. 

A  large  program  has  been  mapped  out;  perhaps 
someone  will  substitute  the  word  "  visionary "  for 
"  large."  All  great  accomplishments  are  visionary  be- 
fore they  are  accomplished.  After  their  achievement 
they  are  said  to  be  in  line  with  the  natural  evolution  of 
civilization  and  inevitable.  Two  things  are  inevitable, 
either  a  great  calamity  in  the  churches,  and  a  so-called 
Christian  civilization  losing  its  one  great  faith  and  fol- 
lowing other  peoples  in  a  division  of  faiths,  or  the 
native  strength  and  spirit  of  American  Christianity  may 
rise  above  the  difficulties  which  beset  it  and  prepare  itself 
for  greater  efforts.  The  strategic  years  are  slipping 
away.  What  is  to  be  done  must  be  done  quickly.  No 
mistake  will  be  made  if  those  denominations  whose  re- 


232  THE  SECTS 

ligious  natures  are  closely  akin  break  down  the  ancient 
walls  and  rebuild  along  the  lines  of  least  natural  re- 
sistance. This  would  give  six  or  eight  great  denomina- 
tions. These  are  all  for  which  any  justification  can  be 
found.  There  is  absolutely  not  one  word  of  defense  for 
sectarianism  apart  from  the  natural  differences  in  hu- 
man beings.  When  these  differences  are  frankly  recog- 
nized and  every  man  worships  God  in  his  own  way, 
recognizing  that  it  is  his  own  way,  then  the  dawn  of 
the  new  era  has  begun.  No  greater  mistake  can  be 
made  than  to  attempt  to  unite  church  sects  that  are 
naturally  far  apart.  Indeed,  the  natural  separation  which 
one  sees  in  the  Dunkards,  the  Friends,  the  Disciples 
and  a  number  of  others,  is  a  separation  which  must  be 
recognized  frankly.  These  great  groups  would  allow 
just  such  differences  of  type  as  those  which  cause  such 
separations.  There  might  easily  be  a  changing  from  one 
large  group  to  another  on  the  part  of  those  who  find 
themselves  out  of  sympathy  with  the  denominations  with 
which  they  are  affiliated.  No  hard  and  fast  lines  can  be 
drawn.  Time  alone  can  work  out  the  best  details,  but  in 
working  out  these  details  the  large  lines  of  differences  in 
type  of  religious  life  must  be  observed. 


XV 
IN  CONCLUSION 

A  FEW  paragraphs  are  necessary  in  conclusion  to 
correct  certain  misunderstandings  which  I  believe 
are  almost  inevitable  in  a  reading  of  the  fore- 
going chapters. 

In  constantly  insisting  upon  the  physical  basis  of  dif- 
ferences in  temperament,  and,  therefore,  in  religion,  it  is 
very  easy  to  lose  sight  of  the  spiritual  character  of  re- 
ligion itself.  Several  works  have  appeared  in  Religious 
Psychology  in  which  the  avowed  intent  was  to  assist 
religious  people  in  an  understanding  of  their  religious 
lives,  but  which  unfortunately  left  their  readers  with  the 
impression  that  religion  can  be  analyzed  in  terms  of 
nerve  action!  Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth. 
It  is  the  conviction  of  the  author  that  what  the  old 
theologians  called  the  Holy  Spirit  is  an  actual  working 
reality  in  the  world  of  man.  This  conviction  has  not 
been  defended  in  this  work,  as  it  would  be  out  of  place 
here.  What  has  been  said  may  be  accepted  by  the 
Theist  or  by  the  Atheist,  as  it  has  had  to  do  with  ob- 
servable facts.  The  chief  question  at  issue  has  been  how 
the  sects  have  been  formed  and  sustained.  This  ques- 
tion has  called  for  Sociology  and  Psychology,  but  not 
for  Theology.  To  revert  to  an  old  figure ;  the  lilies  with 
their  stems  reaching  into  the  black  earth  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pond  and  lifting  their  white  petals  above  the  green 

233 


234  THE  SECTS 

scum  are  alike,  or  they  are  different,  because  of  the 
materials  from  which  they  are  built  and  not  because  of 
the  life-giving  sunlight  which  rests  upon  them.  It  is 
the  same  divine  spirit  which  enters  into  all  religion,  but 
it  is  conditioned  by  the  nature  into  which  it  enters. 

Another  sort  of  misunderstanding  may  well  arise  in 
a  book  of  this  character.  Many  books  consist  of  close- 
knit  arguments;  break  one  of  these  links  and  the  whole 
work  falls  to  pieces.  That  is  not  so  of  this  work.  Many 
an  error  may  creep  in  unobserved,  but  the  central  truths 
remain  unaltered.  For  example,  the  grouping  of  the 
sects  probably  is  not  correct  in  all  details,  but  the  fact 
that  the  sects  differ  in  nature  and  tJtat  some  are  closer 
together  than  others  still  remains. 

This  is  not  intended  as  a  text-book.  It  is  pioneer 
work.  It  seeks  to  do  nothing  more  than  to  blaze  a  trail. 
It  does  not  boast  that  the  surveyor  who  comes  after  will 
find  all  the  lines  straight,  but  it  does  maintain  that  its 
general  direction  is  true  and  that  its  final  destination 
is  sure.  No  book  can  begin  to  cover  all  the  ground  which 
the  preceding  chapters  have  touched  upon.  To  do  full 
justice  to  every  phase  of  the  subjects  treated  a  series 
of  volumes  would  be  necessary.  Among  the  details  of 
the  chapters  the  one  central  truth  for  which  the  book  is 
written  may  be  obscured.  May  one  closing  word  make 
that  truth  stand  forth! 

Never  has  there  been  a  sect  made  by  God. 

Every  group  of  worshippers  has  been  drawn  together 
by  influences  which  may  be  explained  naturally. 

If  the  sects  were  social  or  political  bodies  these  in- 
fluences would  be  acknowledged  instantly.  But  among 
religious  bodies  such  social  and  psychological  principles 
are  obscured.  However,  this  very  obscuration  is  easily 


IN  CONCLUSION  235 

explained.  No  man  with  a  fair  mind  and  with  an  average 
education  can  read  of  the  formation  and  the  perpetuation 
of  the  sects  and  still  cling  to  the  superstition  that  they 
are  the  work  of  God.  Clear  and  unmistakable  is  the 
evidence  that  human  nature  alone  made  and  maintains 
the  sects, — in  religion.  Obviously  and  incontrovertibly 
the  perpetuation  of  the  sects  is  a  menace  to  Christianity 
itself.  No  greater  satisfaction  can  come  to  the  author 
than  to  know  that  these  pages  have  done  something,  how- 
ever small,  to  bring  to  realization  the  prayer  of  the 
Founder  of  our  faith :  "  That  they  all  may  be  one ;  as 
thou,  Father,  art  in  Me  and  I  in  Thee,  that  they  also  may 
be  one  in  us,  that  the  world  may  believe  that  Thou  hast 
sent  Me." 


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